New Testament Special Topics by Dr. Bob Utley

John’s Gospel describes a special relationship between God the Father and Jesus the Son. It is a mutual intimacy based on subjection and equality. Throughout the Gospel, Jesus speaks what He hears the Father saying, does what He sees the Father doing. Jesus does not act on His own, but on the will of the Father.

This intimate fellowship and servanthood sets the pattern for the relationship between Jesus and His followers. This intimate association was not the absorption of the individual (as in eastern mysticism), but an ethical, moral lifestyle of emulation. Fellowship was (1) cognitive (the world-view of the gospel as the Word of God); (2) relational (Jesus was God’s promised Messiah to be trusted in and leaned on); and (3) ethical (His character reproduced in godly believers).

Jesus is the ideal man, the true Israelite, the standard of humanity. He reveals what Adam should have, and could have been (humanly speaking). Jesus is the ultimate “image of God.” He restores the fallen image in mankind by (1) revealing God; (2) dying on our behalf (substitutionary atonement); and (3) providing humans an example to follow. The term “abiding” (menō) reflects the goal of Christlikeness (cf. Rom. 8:29), the restoration of the Fall (cf. Gen. 3).

This reunion of God and His ultimate creation, mankind, for the purpose of fellowship is the Apostle Paul’s “in Christ” and the Apostle John’s “abide in Me.”

Notice John’s usage:

1. Abiding between the Father and Son

a. the Father in the Son (John 10:38; 14:10,11,20; 17:21,23)

b. the Son in the Father (John10:38; 14:10,11,20; 17:21)

2. Abiding between deity and the believer

a. the Father in the believer (John 14:20,23; I John 3:24; 4:12-13,15)

b. the believer in the Father (John 14:20,23; 17:21; I John 2:24,27; 4:13,16)

c. the Son in the believer (John 6:56; 14:20,23; 15:4,5; 17:21,23)

d. the believer in the Son (John 6:56; 14:20,23; 15:4,5,7; I John 2:6,24,27,28)

3. Other abiding elements (positive)

a. the word of God

1) negatively (John 5:38; 8:37; I John 1:10; II John 9)

2) positively (John 8:31; 15:2; I John 2:14,24; II John 9)

b. the love of God (John 15:9-10; 17:26; I John 3:17; 4:16)

c. the Spirit of God

1) on the Son (John 1:32)

2) in the believer (John 14:17)

d. obedience is abiding (John 15:10; I John 3:24)

e. love is abiding in light (I John 2:10)

f. doing the will of God is abiding (I John 2:17)

g. anointing abides (I John 2:27)

h. truth abides (II John 2)

i. the Son abides (John 8:35; 12:34)

4. Other abiding elements (negative)

a. the wrath of God abides (John 3:36)

b. abide in darkness (John 12:46)

c. thrown away. . .burned (not abiding) (John 15:6)

d. sinning (not abiding) (I John 3:6)

e. not loving (not abiding) (I John 3:14)

f. no murderer (not eternal life abiding) (I John 3:15)

g. in death (I John 3:14)

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SPECIAL TOPIC: THE ABOMINATION OF DESOLATION

M. R. Vincent describes well the term abomination: “The cognate verb, ßδελύσσμαι, means to feel a nausea or loathing for food, hence used of disgust generally. In a moral sense it denotes an object of moral or religious repugnance. See II Chron. 15:8; Jer. 13:27; Ezek. 11:21; Dan. 9:27; 11:31. It is used as equivalent to idol in I Kings 11:17; Deut. 7:26; 2 Kings 23:13. It denotes anything in which estrangement from God manifests itself; as the eating of unclean beasts, Lev. 11:11; Deut. 14:3; and, generally, all forms of heathenism. This moral sense must be emphasized in the New Testament use of the word. Compare Luke 16:15; Rev. 17:4,5; 21:27. It does not denote mere physical or esthetic disgust. The reference here is probably to the occupation of the temple precincts by the idolatrous Romans under Titus, with their standards and ensigns. Josephus says that after the burning of the temple the Romans brought their ensigns and set them over against the eastern gate, and there they offered sacrifices to them, and declared Titus, with acclamations, to be emperor” (Word Studies in the New Testament, pp. 74-75).

The word “desolation” meant sacrilege. This phrase is used in Dan. 9:27, 11:31, and 12:11.

1. It seems originally to refer to Antiochus IV Epiphanes, who put an altar to Zeus Olympios in the temple in Jerusalem in 167 b.c. (cf. Dan. 8:9-14; I Macc. 1:54).

2. Also in Dan. 7:7-8 it related to the Antichrist of the end-time (cf. II Thess. 2:4).

3. In Luke 21:20 it possibly refers to the coming of the Roman General (later Emperor) Titus’ army in a.d. 70, who sacrificed to their army standards which were dedicated to pagan gods, placed by the eastern gate close to the temple. It cannot refer to the siege of Jerusalem itself because it would be too late for believers to escape.

This is an example of a phrase being used in several different, but related, senses. This is called multiple fulfillment prophecy. It is difficult to interpret until after the events occur; looking back, the typology is obvious.

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SPECIAL TOPIC: ABOUND (perissevō)

Paul uses this term often

1. The truth of God abounded to His glory, Rom. 3:7

2. The free gift in the grace of that one man, Jesus Christ, abounded, Rom. 5:15

3. Believers abound in hope, Rom. 15:13

4. Believers are not commended to God by eating or not eating certain foods, I Cor. 8:8

5. Believers abound in building up the church, I Cor. 14:12

6. Believers abound in the work of the Lord, I Cor. 15:58

7. Believers share abundantly in Christ’s suffering and abundantly in Christ’s comfort, II Cor. 1:5

8. The ministry of righteousness abounds in glory, II Cor. 3:9

9. Believers’s thanksgiving is to abound to the glory of God, II Cor. 4:15

10. Believers’ abundance of joy, II Cor. 8:2

11. Believers abound in everything (faith, utterance, knowledge, earnestness, and love), also in the gift for the Jerusalem church, II Cor. 8:7

12. All grace abounds to believers, II Cor. 9:8

13. Believers’ abundant thanksgiving to God, II Cor. 9:12

14. The riches of God’s grace is lavished on believers, Eph. 1:8

15. Believers’ love may abound still more and more, Phil. 1:9

16. Believers’ confidence in Paul abound in Christ, Phil. 1:26

17. Having abundance, Phil. 4:12,18

18. Believers overflowing with gratitude, Col. 2:7

19. Believers increase and abound in love for one another, I Thess. 3:12

20. Abound in godly lifestyle, I Thess. 4:1

21. Abound in love for fellow believers, I Thess. 4:10

Paul’s understanding of the grace of God in Christ was “over and above,” so too, is the need for believers to walk in this “over and above” grace and love in their daily lives!

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SPECIAL TOPIC: ADOPTIONISM

This was one of the early views of Jesus’ relation to deity. It basically asserted that Jesus was a normal human in every way and was adopted in a special sense by God at his baptism (cf. Matt. 3:17; Mark 1:11) or at His resurrection (cf. Rom. 1:4). Jesus lived such an exemplary life that God, at some point, (baptism, resurrection) adopted Him as His “son” (cf. Rom. 1:4; Phi. 2:9). This was an early church and eighth century minority view. Instead of God becoming a man (the Incarnation) it reverses this and now man becomes God!

It is difficult to verbalize how Jesus, God the Son, pre-existent Deity, was rewarded or extolled for an exemplary life. If He was already God, how could He be rewarded? If He had pre-existent divine glory how could He be honored more? Although it is hard for us to comprehend, the Father somehow honored Jesus in a special sense for His perfect fulfillment of the Father’s will.

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SPECIAL TOPIC: ADULTERY (EXODUS 20:14)

I. Context

A. It is obvious that the commandment is related to one’s respect for God which is seen in respect for one’s neighbor’s life, wife, and property (cf. Jer. 5:8). This is verified by the different order of these commands in the Septuagint.

B. The Deuteronomic parallel shows the appropriateness of adopting this ancient truth to our culture.

C. As respect for parents was seen as a key to a stable society, so too, is this command.

D. This command also implies God’s ownership and control of our sexual and family lives.

E. This command seems to have been based on Gen. 2:24, as command number four was based on Gen. 2:1-3.

II. Word Study

A. The major term in this text is “adultery” (ךאנ, BDB 610). It is crucial that one understand this term in light of ancient Hebrew culture.

1. This term is distinct in an OT context from “fornication.” Adultery relates to at least one party in the sexual relationship being married. The term “fornication” implies both parties are not married (cf. Pro. 29:3; 31:3). The distinction is lost in the NT Greek terms.

2. This possibility explains the reason for the emphasis on marital status because it relates to the importance of inheritance rights, which were involved in God’s promise of “the land.” Every fifty years (Jubilee) all land was to revert to the original tribal owners.

3. Adultery was culturally condemned before the Mosaic legislation (cf. Gen. 12:10ff; 26:7ff; 39:9).

4. Adultery was seen as a sin against

a. neighbor – Exod. 20:14; Deut. 5:18

b. marriage – Lev. 18:20

c. God – Gen. 20:2-13; 26:7-11

5. It was punishable by death for both parties

a. Lev. 20:10

b. Deut. 22:22-24

c. Ezek. 16:40 (metaphor)

d. strict warnings are found in Proverbs 1-9

III. Relation to New Testament

A. Jesus used Lev. 19:18 as a summary of the Old Revelation (cf. Luke 10:27). This confirms that the Ten Commandments are related to our treatment of others.

B. Jesus intensifies the commands in Matt. 5:28. He places the emphasis on motive rather than action. The Jews saw the mind as the seed bed of the soul. What one thought was what one really was (Pro. 23:7). This makes the Ten Words almost impossible to keep—that is the purpose! (cf. Gal. 2:15-3:29).

IV. Modern Application

A. Marriage is possibly the best modern analogy of a lifelong faith commitment in God’s name. It is our best chance to understand the realities of OT covenant concepts (Mal. 2:14). Our respect for our mate in all aspects, including human sexuality, helps us comprehend the thrust of this verse.

B. Marriage stability and loyalty, like respect for parents, is a major pillar of societal strength and longevity.

C. It needs to be emphasized that human sexuality is a gift from God. It was His idea and will for mankind. The guidelines are not meant to thwart mankind’s freedom or joy, but to give some godly guidelines for fallen humanity. The bounds are revealed for our long-term benefit and happiness. Although mankind has abused sexuality, as they have all of God’s gifts, it is still a powerful drive within humankind which must be under God’s control and guidance.

D. Sex must be guarded so that the sacredness of the human person (female or male) is respected because they are made in God’s image (Gen. 1:26-27). Our fallen focus on “me” is all too obvious in this area.

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SPECIAL TOPIC: AGE

I. Introduction

A. A quote from a Christian Life Commission on “A Future for the Family,” 1973, p. 16, by L. D. Johnson, entitled “Hebrew-Christian Geriatrics”:

“Our attitude toward the aging, reflected in our behavior as opposed to our sentimental talk, suggests that we recommend the Bible more ardently than obey it. Probably no society among civilized people demonstrates less concern for the aged than ours. We are youth worshipers. We cater to the young, pamper and overprotect them, indulge them, envy them, and make fools of ourselves trying to imitate them. Our highest value is youth, our lowest age.

Yet the absurdity of such a turned-upside-down value system ought to be obvious. One out of six of us in the western world is over sixty, and the proportion is rising.”

B. Cultures have differed greatly in how they have treated their aged:

1. Oriental cultures have shown great respect and care for their aged.

2. American Indian culture abandoned their aged to die.

C. There are some biblical guidelines to help us in this area.

II. Biblical Material

A. Old Testament

1. Age is a divine blessing for a covenant walk.

a. Proverbs 16:31

b. Genesis 15:15

c. Exodus 20:12; Duet. 6:2; 22:6-7; 25:15

d. Job 5:17-26 (especially v. 26)

e. Psalm 91:14-16

f. Psalm 92:1-15 (especially vv. 14-15)

2. Even blessed age has its unique problems

a. graphic description of old age is found in Eccl. 12:1-5

b. Isaac had poor eyesight, Gen. 27:1

c. Jacob had poor eyesight, Gen. 48:10

d. Eli had poor eyesight, I Sam. 3:2

e. Barzillai had poor hearing and taste, II Sam. 19:31-35

f. David had poor circulation, I Kings 1:1-4

g. Ahijah had poor eyesight, I Kings 14:1

3. God never leaves us, even in old age.

a. Psalm 37:23-26

b. Psalm 71:9,18

c. Psalm 73:24

4. Age, since it is a sign of God’s blessing, is to be respected.

a. Leviticus 19:32

b. Ruth 4:15

c. Proverbs 23:22

d. Lack of respect is and will be judged.

(1) Deuteronomy 28:50

(2) I Samuel 2:31-32

(3) Isaiah 3:5

(4) Lamentations 4:16; 5:12

e. Wisdom of Solomon, 2:10

f. Wisdom of Ben Sirach (Ecclesiasticus) 8:6

5. Blessed age brings wisdom and discernment

a. I Kings 12:8

b. Job 12:12,20

c. Job 15:10

d. (Ecclesiasticus 25:6)

e. There are exceptions

(1) Job 32:6ff

(2) Ecclesiastes 4:13

6. What is considered old age?

a. Leviticus 27:1-8, 60 years

b. Psalm 90:10, normal - 70, good - 80

c. Isaiah 65:20, 100 years

d. (Ecclesiasticus 18:9 - 100 years)

B. New Testament

1. I Timothy

a. the widows role, 5:3ff

b. attitude toward older persons, 3:1-2

c. believers are responsible to their families, 3:8

III. Some Practical Suggestions

A. Teach your children to respect older people (you will need this one day yourself!).

B. Make it a family project to contact aged members of your family. If possible, in person, if not, call or write to older relatives, especially at holiday times.

C. Take a trip to an aged neighbor or nursing home. Encourage your church to adopt a home and visit it regularly.

D. Provide time for our younger children to be with grandparents, either natural or “adopted,”

E. Encourage our churches to develop Senior Adult Ministries. Assign a staff member to coordinate.

F. Personally begin now to plan and prepare for retirement.

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SPECIAL TOPIC: THIS AGE AND THE AGE TO COME

The OT prophets viewed the future as an extension of the present. For them the future will be a restoration of geographical Israel. However, even they saw it as a new day (cf. Isa. 65:17; 66:22). With the continued willful rejection of YHWH by the descendants of Abraham (even after the exile) a new paradigm developed in Jewish intertestamental apocalyptic literature (i.e., I Enoch, IV Ezra, II Baruch). These writings begin to distinguish between two ages: a current evil age dominated by Satan and a coming age of righteousness dominated by the Spirit and inaugurated by the Messiah (often a dynamic warrior).

In this area of theology (eschatology) there is an obvious development. Theologians call this “progressive revelation.” The NT affirms this new cosmic reality of two ages (i.e., a temporal dualism).

Jesus Paul Hebrews

Matthew 12:32 Romans 12:2 1:2

Matthew13:22 & 29 I Cor. 1:20; 2:6,8; 3:18 6:5

Mark 10:30 II Cor. 4:4 11:3

Luke 16:8 Galatians 1:4

Luke 18:30 Eph. 1:21; 2:1,7; 6:12

Luke 20:34-35 I Timothy 6:17

II Timothy 4:10

Titus 2:12

In NT theology these two Jewish ages have been overlapped because of the unexpected and overlooked predictions of the two comings of the Messiah. The incarnation of Jesus fulfilled the OT prophecies of the inauguration of the new age (Dan. 2:44-45). However, the OT also saw His coming as Judge and Conqueror, yet He came at first as the Suffering Servant (cf. Isaiah 53; Zech. 12:10), humble and meek (cf. Zechariah 9:9). He will return in power just as the OT predicted (cf. Revelation 19). This two-stage fulfillment caused the Kingdom to be present (inaugurated), but future (not fully consummated). This is the NT tension of the already, but not yet!

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SPECIAL TOPIC: BIBLICAL ATTITUDES TOWARD ALCOHOL AND ALCOHOLISM

I. Biblical Terms

A. Old Testament

1. Yayin – This is the general term for wine (BDB 406), which is used 141 times. The etymology is uncertain because it is not from a Hebrew root. It always means fermented fruit juice, usually grape. Some typical passages are Gen. 9:21; Exod. 29:40; Num. 15:5,10.

2. Tirosh – This is “new wine” (BDB 440). Because of climatic conditions of the Near East, fermentation started as soon as six hours after extracting the juice. This term refers to wine in the process of fermenting. For some typical passages see Deut. 12:17; 18:4; Isa. 62:8-9; Hos. 4:11.

3. Asis – This is obviously alcoholic beverages (“sweet wine,” BDB 779, e.g. Joel 1:5; Isa. 49:26).

4. Sekar – This is the term “strong drink” (BDB 1016). The Hebrew root is used in the term “drunk” or “drunkard.” It had something added to it to make it more intoxicating. It is parallel to yayin (cf. Pro. 20:1; 31:6; Isa. 28:7).

B. New Testament

1. Oinos – the Greek equivalent of yayin

2. Neos oinos (new wine) – the Greek equivalent of tirosh (cf. Mark 2:22).

3. Gleuchos vinos (sweet wine, asis) – wine in the early stages of fermentation (cf. Acts 2:13).

II. Biblical Usage

A. Old Testament

1. Wine is a gift of God (Gen. 27:28; Ps. 104:14-15; Eccl. 9:7; Hos. 2:8-9; Joel 2:19,24; Amos 9:13; Zech. 10:7).

2. Wine is a part of a sacrificial offering (Exod. 29:40; Lev. 23:13; Num. 15:7,10; 28:14; Deut. 14:26; Jdgs. 9:13).

3. Wine is used as medicine (II Sam. 16:2; Pro. 31:6-7).

4. Wine can be a real problem (Noah – Gen. 9:21; Lot – Gen. 19:33,35; Samson – Jdgs. 16:19; Nabal – I Sam. 25:36; Uriah – II Sam. 11:13; Amnon – II Sam. 13:28; Elah – I Kgs. 16:9; Benhadad – I Kgs. 20:12; Rulers – Amos 6:6; and Ladies – Amos 4).

5. Wine can be abused (Pro. 20:1; 23:29-35; 31:4-5; Isa. 5:11,22; 19:14; 28:7-8; Hosea 4:11).

6. Wine was prohibited to certain groups (priests on duty, Lev. 10:9; Ezek. 44:21; Nazarites, Num. 6; and rulers, Pro. 31:4-5; Isa. 56:11-12; Hosea 7:5).

7. Wine is used in an eschatological setting (Amos 9:13; Joel 3:18; Zech. 9:17).

B. Interbiblical

1. Wine in moderation is very helpful (Ecclesiasticus 31:27-30).

2. The rabbis say, “Wine is the greatest of all medicine, where wine is lacking, then drugs are needed.” (BB 58b).

C. New Testament

1. Jesus changed a large quantity of water into wine (John 2:1-11).

2. Jesus drank wine (Matt. 11:18-19; Luke 7:33-34; 22:17ff).

3. Peter accused of drunkenness on “new wine” at Pentecost (Acts 2:13).

4. Wine can be used as medicine (Mark 15:23; Luke 10:34; I Tim. 5:23).

5. Leaders are not to be abusers. This does not mean total abstainers (I Tim. 3:3,8; Titus 1:7; 2:3; I Pet. 4:3).

6. Wine used in eschatological settings (Mathew. 22:1ff; Rev. 19:9).

7. Drunkenness is deplored (Matt. 24:49; Luke 12:45; 21:34; I Cor. 5:11-13; 6:10; Gal. 5:21; I Pet. 4:3; Rom. 13:13-14).

III. Theological Insight

A. Dialectical tension

1. Wine is the gift of God.

2. Drunkenness is a major problem.

3. Believers in some cultures must limit their freedoms for the sake of the gospel (Matt. 15:1-20; Mark 7:1- 23; I Corinthians 8-10; Romans 14).

B. Tendency to go beyond given bounds

1. God is the source of all good things.

2. Fallen mankind has abused all of God’s gifts by taking them beyond God-given bounds.

C. Abuse is in us, not in things. There is nothing evil in the physical creation (cf. Mark 7:18-23; Rom. 14:14,20; I Cor. 10:25-26; I Tim. 4:4; Titus 1:15).

IV. First Century Jewish Culture and Fermentation

A. Fermentation begins very soon, approximately 6 hours after the grape is crushed.

B. Jewish tradition says that when a slight foam appeared on the surface (sign of fermentation), it is liable to the wine-tithe (Ma aseroth 1:7). It was called “new wine” or “sweet wine.”

C. The primary violent fermentation was complete after one week.

D. The secondary fermentation took about 40 days. At this state it is considered “aged wine” and could be offered on the altar (Edhuyyoth 6:1).

E. Wine that had rested on its lees (old wine) was considered good, but had to be strained well before use.

F. Wine was considered to be properly aged usually after one year of fermentation. Three years was the longest period of time that wine could be safely stored. It was called “old wine” and had to be diluted with water.

G. Only in the last 100 years with a sterile environment and chemical additives has fermentation been postponed. The ancient world could not stop the natural process of fermentation.

V. Closing Statements

A. Be sure your experience, theology, and biblical interpretation do not depreciate Jesus and first century Jewish/Christian culture! They were obviously not total-abstainers.

B. I am not advocating the social use of alcohol. However, many have overstated the Bible’s position on this subject and now claim superior righteousness based on a cultural/denominational bias.

C. For me, Romans 14 and I Corinthians 8-10 have provided insight and guidelines based on love and respect for fellow believers and the spread of the gospel in our cultures, not personal freedom or judgmental criticism. If the Bible is the only source for faith and practice, then maybe we must all rethink this issue.

D. If we push total abstinence as God’s will, what do we imply about Jesus, as well as those modern cultures that regularly use wine (e.g., Europe, Israel, Argentina)?

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SPECIAL TOPIC: ALMSGIVING

I. The term itself

A. This term developed within Judaism (i.e., the Septuagint period).

B. It refers to giving to the poor and/or needy

C. The English word, almsgiving, comes from a contraction of the Greek term eleēmosunē.

II. Old Testament concept

A. The concept of helping the poor was expressed early in the Torah

1. typical context, Deut. 15:7-11

2. “gleaning,” leaving part of the harvest for the poor, Lev. 19:9; 23:22; Deut. 24:20

3. “sabbath year,” allowing the poor to eat the produce of the seventh, fallow year, Exod. 23:10-11; Lev. 25:2-7.

B. The concept was developed in Wisdom Literature (selected examples)

1. Job 5:8-16; 29:12-17 (the wicked described in 24:1-12)

2. the Psalms, 11:7

3. Proverbs 11:4; 14:21,31; 16:6; 21:3,13

III. Development in Judaism

A. The first division of the Mishnah deals with how to treat the poor, needy, and local Levites.

B. Selected quotes

1. Ecclesiasticus (also known as the Wisdom of Ben Sirach) 3:30, “as water extinguishes a blazing fire, so almsgiving atones for sin” (NRSV)

2. Ecclesiasticus 29:12, “store up almsgiving in your treasury and it will rescue you from every disaster” (NRSV)

3. Tobit 4:6-11, “for those who act in accordance with truth will prosper in all their activities. To all those who practice righteousness^b ⁷give alms from your possessions, and do not let your eye begrudge the gift when you make it. Do not turn your face away from anyone who is poor, and the face of God will not be turned away from you. ⁸If you have many possessions, make your gift from them in proportion; if few, do not be afraid to give according to the little you have. ⁹So you will be laying up a good treasure for yourself against the day of necessity. ¹⁰For almsgiving delivers from death and keeps you from going into the Darkness. ¹¹Indeed, almsgiving, for all who practice it, is an excellent offering in the presence of the Most High.” (NRSV)

4. Tobit 12:8-9, “⁸Prayer and fasting^d is good, but better than both is almsgiving with righteousness. A little with righteousness is better than wealth with wrongdoing^e. It is better to give alms than to lay up gold. ⁹For almsgiving saves from death and purges away every sin. Those who give alms will enjoy a full life.” (NRSV)

C. The last quote from Tobit 12:8-9 shows the problem developing. Human actions/human merits were seen as the mechanism for both forgiveness and abundance.

This concept developed further in the Septuagint where the Greek term for “almsgiving” (eleēmosunē) became a synonym for “righteousness” (dikaiosunē). They could be substituted for each other in translating the Hebrew “righteousness” (BDB 842, God’s covenant love and loyalty, cf. Deut. 6:25; 24:13; Isa. 1:27; 28:17; 59:16; Dan. 4:27).

D. Human acts of compassion became a goal in themselves to achieve one’s personal abundance here and salvation at death. The act itself, instead of the motive behind the act, became theologically

preeminent. God looks at the heart, then judges the work of the hand. This was the teaching of the rabbis, but it somehow got lost in individual self-righteousness (cf. Micah 6:8).

IV. New Testament reaction

A. The term is found in

1. Matt. 6:1-4

2. Luke 11:41; 12:33

3. Acts 3:2-3,10; 10:2,4,31; 24:17

B. Jesus addresses the traditional understanding of righteousness as (cf. II Clement 16:4)

1. almsgiving

2. fasting

3. prayer

C. In Jesus’ Sermon on the Mount (cf. Matthew 5-7). Some Jews were trusting in their actions. These actions are meant to flow out of a love for God, His word and covenant brothers and sisters, not self-interest or self-righteousness! Humility and secrecy become guidelines for proper actions. The heart is crucial. The heart is desperately wicked. God must change the heart. The new heart emulates God!

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SPECIAL TOPIC: AMEN

I. OLD TESTAMENT

A. The term “Amen” is from a Hebrew word for

1. “truth” (emeth, BDB 49)

2. “truthfulness” (emun, emunah, BDB 53)

3. “faith” or “faithfulness”

4. “trust” (dmn, BDB 52)

B. Its etymology is from a person’s stable physical stance. The opposite would be one who is unstable, slipping (cf. Deut. 28:64-67; 38:16; Psalm 40:2; 73:18; Jeremiah 23:12) or stumbling (cf. Ps. 73:2). From this literal usage developed the metaphorical extension of faithful, trustworthy, loyal, and dependable (cf. Gen. 15:16; Hab. 2:4).

C. Special usages

1. a pillar, II Kgs. 18:16 (I Tim. 3:15)

2. assurance, Exod. 17:12

3. steadiness, Exod. 17:12

4. stability, Isa. 33:6; 34:5-7

5. true, I Kgs. 10:6; 17:24; 22:16; Prov. 12:22

6. firm, II Chr. 20:20; Isa. 7:9

7. reliable (Torah), Ps. 119:43,142,151,168

D. In the OT two other Hebrew terms are used for active faith.

1. bathach (BDB 105), trust

2. yra (BDB 431), fear, respect, worship (cf. Gen. 22:12)

E. From the sense of trust or trustworthiness developed a liturgical usage which was used to affirm a true or trustworthy statement of another (cf. Deut. 27:15-26; Neh. 8:6; Ps. 41:13; 70:19; 89:52; 106:48).

F. The theological key to this term is not mankind’s faithfulness, but YHWH’s (cf. Exod. 34:6; Duet. 32:4; Ps. 108:4; 115:1; 117:2; 138:2). Fallen humanity's only hope is the merciful faithful covenant loyalty of YHWH and His promises. Those who know YHWH are to be like Him (cf. Hab. 2:4). The Bible is a history and a record of God restoring His image (cf. Gen. 1:26-27) in mankind. Salvation restores mankind’s ability to have intimate fellowship with God. This is why we were created.

II. NEW TESTAMENT

A. The use of the word “amen” as a concluding liturgical affirmation of a statement’s trustworthiness of a statement is common in the NT (cf. I Cor. 14:16; II Cor. 1:20; Rev. 1:7; 5:14; 7:12).

B. The use of the term as a close to a prayer is common in the NT (cf. Rom. 1:25; 9:5; 11:36; 16:27; Gal. 1:5; 6:18; Eph. 3:21; Phil. 4:20; II Thess. 3:18; I Tim. 1:17; 6:16; II Tim. 4:18).

C. Jesus is the only one who used the term (often doubled in John) to introduce significant statements (cf. Luke 4:24; 12:37; 18:17,29; 21:32; 23:43)

D. It is used as a title for Jesus in Rev. 3:14 (possibly a title of YHWH from Isa. 65:16).

E. The concept of faithfulness or faith, trustworthiness, or trust is expressed in the Greek term pistos or pistis, which is translated into English as “trust,” “faith,” “believe.”

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SPECIAL TOPIC: Ancient near Eastern Weights and Volumes (Metrology)

The weights and measurements used in commerce were crucial in ancient agricultural economy. The Bible urges the Jews to be fair in their dealings with one another (cf. Lev. 19:35-36; Deut. 25:13-16; Prov. 11:1; 16:11; 20:10). The real problem was not only honesty, but the non-standardized terms and systems used in Palestine. It seems that there were two sets of weights; a “light” and a “heavy” of each amount (see The Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible, vol. 4, p. 831). Also the decimal system (base of 10) of Egypt had been combined with the sexagesimal (base of 6) of Mesopotamia.

Many of the “sizes” and “amounts” used were based on human body parts, animal loads, and farmer’s containers, none of which were standardized. Therefore, the charts are only estimations and are tentative. The easiest way to show weights and measures is on a relational chart.

I. Volume terms used most often

A. Dry measures

1. Homer (BDB 330, possibly a “donkey-load,” BDB 331), e.g., Lev. 27:16; Hosea 3:2

2. Letekh (or lethech, BDB 547, possibly alluded to in Hosea 3:2)

3. Ephah (BDB 35), e.g., Exod. 16:36; Lev. 19:36; Ezek. 45:10-11,13,24

4. Se’ah (BDB 684), e.g., Gen. 18:6; I Sam. 25:18; I Kgs. 18:32; II Kgs. 7:1,16,18

5. Omer (BDB 771 II, possibly “a sheaf” [a row of fallen grain], BDB 771 I), e.g., Exod. 16:16,22,36; Lev. 23:10-15

6. ‘Issaron (BDB 798, “a tenth part” of ephah), e.g., Exod. 29:40; Lev. 14:21; Num. 15:4; 28:5,13

7. Qav (or Kab, BDB 866), cf. II Kgs. 6:25

B. Liquid Measures

1. Kor (BDB 499), e.g., Ezek. 45:14 (can be dry measure, cf. II Chr. 2:10; 27:5)

2. Bath (BDB 144 II), e.g., I Kgs. 7:26,38; II Chr. 2:10; 4:5; Isa. 5:10; Ezek. 45:10-11,14

3. Hin (BDB 228), e.g., Exod. 29:40; Lev. 19:36; Ezek. 45:24

4. Log (BDB 528), cf. Lev. 14:10,12,15,21,24

C. Chart (taken from Roland deVaux, Ancient Israel, vol. 1, p. 201 and Encyclopedia Judaica, vol. 16, p. 379)

homer (dry) = kor (liquid or dry) 1

ephah (dry) = bath (liquid) 10 1

se’ah (dry) 30 3 1

hin (liquid) 60 6 2 1

omer/issaron (dry) 100 10 - - 1

qav/kab (dry) 180 18 6 3 - 1

log (liquid) 720 72 24 12 - 4 1

II. Weight terms used most often

A. The three most common weights are the talent, the shekel, and the gerah.

1. The largest weight in the OT is the talent. From Exod. 38:25-26 we learn that one talent equals 3,000 shekels (i.e., “round weight,” BDB 503).

2. The term shekel (BDB 1053, “weight”) is used so often that it is assumed, but not stated in the text. There are several values of shekel mentioned in the OT.

a. “commercial standard” (NASB of Gen. 23:16)

b. “the shekel of the sanctuary” (NASB of Exod. 30:13)

c. “by the king’s weight” (NASB of II Sam. 14:26), also called “royal weight” in the Elephantine papyri.

3. The gerah (BDB 176 II) is valued at 20 per shekel (cf. Exod. 30:13; Lev. 27:25; Num. 3:47; 18:16; Ezek. 45:12). These ratios vary from Mesopotamia to Egypt. Israel followed the evaluation most common in Canaan (Ugarit)

4. The mina (BDB 584) is valued at either 50 or 60 shekels. This term is found mostly in later OT books (i.e., Ezek. 45:12; Ezra 2:69; Neh. 7:70-71). Ezekiel used the 60 to 1 ratio, while Canaan used the 50 to 1 ratio.

5. The beka (BDB 132, “half a shekel,” cf. Gen. 24:22) is used only twice in the OT (cf. Gen. 24:22; Exod. 38:26) and is valued at one-half a shekel. Its name means “to divide.”

B. Chart

1. Based on Pentateuch

talent 1

mina 60 1

shekel 3,000 50 1

beka 6,000 100 2 1

gerah, 60,000 1,000 20 10 1

2. Based on Ezekiel

talent 1

mina 60 1

shekel 3,600 60 1

beka 7,200 120 2 1

gerah 72,000 1,200 20 10 1

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SPECIAL TOPIC: ANGELS IN PAUL’S WRITINGS

The rabbis thought that the angels were jealous of God’s love and attention to fallen mankind and, therefore, were hostile to them. The Gnostic false teachers asserted that salvation was only available by secret passwords through hostile angelic spheres (cf. Colossians and Ephesians), which led up to the high-god.

George Eldon Ladd has a good summary of the terms used by Paul for angels in his book A Theology of the New Testament:

“Paul refers not only to good and bad angels, to Satan and to demons; he uses another group of words to designate ranks of angelic spirits. The terminology is as follows:

‘Rule’ [arche], I Cor. 15:24; Eph. 1:21; Col. 2:10

‘Rules’ [archai; RSV, “principalities’], Eph. 3:10; 6:12; Col. 1:16; 2:15; Rom. 8:38

‘Authority’ [exousia], I Cor. 15:24; Eph. 1:21; Col. 2:10

‘Authorities’ [exousiai; RSV, “authorities”], Eph. 1:21

‘Power’ [dynamis], I Cor. 15:24; Eph. 1:21

‘Powers’ [dynameis], Rom. 8:38

‘Thrones’ [thronoi], Col. 1:16

‘Lordship’ [kyriotes; RSV, “dominion”], Eph. 1:21

‘Lordships’ [kyriotetes], Col. 1:16

‘World rulers of this darkness,’ Eph. 6:12

‘The spiritual (hosts) of evil in the heavenlies,’ Eph. 6:12

‘The authority of darkness,’ Col. 1:13

‘Every name that is named,’ Eph. 1:21

‘Heavenly, earthly, and subterranean beings,’ Phil. 2:10 ” (p. 401).

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SPECIAL TOPIC: ANOINTING IN THE BIBLE (BDB 603)

A. Used for beautification (cf. Deut. 28:40; Ruth 3:3; II Sam. 12:20; 14:2; II Chr. 28:1-5; Dan. 10:3; Amos 6:6; Mic. 6:15)

B. Used for guests (cf. Ps. 23:5; Luke 7:38,46; John 11:2)

C. Used for healing (cf. Isa. 6:1; Jer. 51:8; Mark 6:13; Luke 10:34; James 5:14) [used in hygienic sense in Ezek. 16:9]

D. Used for preparation for burial (cf. Gen. 50:2; II Chr. 16:14; Mark 16:1; John 12:3,7; 19:39-40)

E. Used in a religious sense (of an object, cf. Gen. 28:18,20; 31:13 [a pillar]; Exod. 29:36 [the altar]; Exod. 30:36; 40:9-16; Lev. 8:10-13; Num. 7:1 [the tabernacle])

F. Used for installing leaders

1. Priests

a. Aaron (Exod. 28:41; 29:7; 30:30)

b. Aaron’s sons (Exod. 40:15; Lev. 7:36)

c. standard phrase or title (Num. 3:3; Lev. 16:32)

2. Kings

a. by God (cf. I Sam. 2:10; II Sam. 12:7; II Kgs. 9:3,6,12; Ps. 45:7; 89:20)

b. by the prophets (cf. I Sam. 9:16; 10:1; 15:1,17; 16:3,12-13; I Kgs. 1:45; 19:15-16)

c. by priests (cf. I Kgs. 1:34,39; II Kgs. 11:12)

d. by the elders (cf. Jdgs. 9:8,15; II Sam. 2:7; 5:3; II Kgs. 23:30)

e. of Jesus as Messianic king (cf. Ps. 2:2; Luke 4:18 [Isa. 61:1]; Acts 4:27; 10:38; Heb. 1:9 [Ps. 45:7])

f. Jesus’ followers (cf. II Cor. 1:21; I John 2:20,27 [chrisma])

3. possibly of prophets (cf. Isa. 61:1)

4. unbelieving instruments of divine deliverance

a. Cyrus (cf. Isa. 45:1)

b. King of Tyre (cf. Ezek. 28:14, where he uses Edom metaphors)

5. term or title “Messiah” means “an Anointed One” (BDB 603)

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SPECIAL TOPIC: THE ANY-MOMENT RETURN OF JESUS VERSUS THE NOT YET (NT PARADOX)

A. New Testament eschatological passages reflect Old Testament prophetic insight that viewed the end-time through contemporary occurrences.

B. Matt. 24, Mark 13, and Luke 21 are so difficult to interpret because they deal with several questions simultaneously.

1. when will the Temple be destroyed?

2. what will be the sign of the Messiah’s return?

3. when will this age end (cf. Matt. 24:3)?

C. The genre of New Testament eschatological passages is usually a combination of apocalyptic and prophetic language which is purposely ambiguous and highly symbolic.

D. Several passages in the NT (cf. Matt. 24, Mark 13, Luke 17 and 21, I and II Thessalonians and Revelation) deal with the Second Coming. These passages emphasize:

1. the exact time of the event is unknown, but the event is certain

2. we can know the general time, but not specific time, of the events

3. it will occur suddenly and unexpectedly

4. we must be prayerful, ready, and faithful to assigned tasks.

E. There is a theological paradoxical tension between (1) the any-moment return (cf. Luke 12:40,46; 21:36; Matt.24:27,44) and (2) the fact that some events in history must occur.

F. The NT states that some events will occur before the Second Coming:

1. the Gospel preached to the whole world (cf. Matt. 24:14; Mark 13:10)

2. the great apostasy (cf. Matt. 24:10-13, 21; I Tim. 4:1; II Tim. 3:1ff.; II Thess. 2:3)

3. the revelation of the “man of sin” (cf. Dan. 7:23-26; 9:24-27; II Thess. 2:3)

4. removal of that/who restrains (cf. II Thess. 2:6-7)

5. Jewish revival (cf. Zech. 12:10; Romans 11)

G. Luke 17:26-37 is not paralleled in Mark. It does have a partial Synoptic parallel in Matt. 24:37-44.

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SPECIAL TOPIC: APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE

(This special topic is taken from my commentary on Revelation.)

Revelation is a uniquely Jewish literary genre, apocalyptic. It was often used in tension-filled times to express the conviction that God was in control of history and would bring deliverance to His people. This type of literature is characterized by

1. a strong sense of the universal sovereignty of God (monotheism and determinism)

2. a struggle between good and evil, this age and the age to come (dualism)

3. use of secret code words (usually from the OT or intertestamental Jewish apocalyptic literature)

4. use of colors, numbers, animals, sometimes animals/humans

5. use of angelic mediation by means of visions and dreams, but usually through angelic mediation

6. primarily focuses on the end-time (new age)

7. use of a fixed set of symbols, not reality, to communicate the end-time message

8. Some examples of this type of genre are

a. Old Testament

(1) Isaiah 24-27, 56-66

(2) Ezekiel 37-48

(3) Daniel 7-12

(4) Joel 2:28-3:21

(5) Zechariah 1-6, 12-14

b. New Testament

(1) Matthew 24, Mark 13, Luke 21, and I Corinthians 15 (in some ways)

(2) II Thessalonians 2 (in most ways)

(3) Revelation (chapters 4-22)

c. non-canonical (taken from D. S. Russell, The Method and Message of Jewish Apocalyptic, pp. 37-38)

(1) I Enoch, II Enoch (the Secrets of Enoch)

(2) The Book of Jubilees

(3) The Sibylline Oracles III, IV, V

(4) The Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs

(5) The Psalms of Solomon

(6) The Assumption of Moses

(7) The Martyrdom of Isaiah

(8) The Apocalypse of Moses (Life of Adam and Eve)

(9) The Apocalypse of Abraham

(10) The Testament of Abraham

(11) II Esdras (IV Esdras)

(12) Baruch II, III

9. There is a sense of duality in this genre. It sees reality as a series of dualisms, contrasts, or tensions (so common in John’s writings) between:

a. heaven – earth

b. evil age (evil men and evil angels) – new age of righteousness (godly men and godly angels)

c. current existence – future existence

All of these are moving toward a consummation brought about by God. This is not the world God intended it to be, but He is continuing to play, work, and project His will for a restoration of the intimate fellowship begun in the Garden of Eden. The Christ event is the watershed of God’s plan, but the two comings have brought about the current dualisms.

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SPECIAL TOPIC: APOSTASY (APHISTĒMI)

This Greek term aphistēmi has a wide semantic field. However, the English term “apostasy” is derived from this term and prejudices its usage to modern readers. Context, as always, is the key, not a preset definition.

This is a compound term from the preposition apo, which means “from” or “away from” and histēmi, “to sit,” “to stand,” or “to fix.” Notice the following (non-theological) usages:

1. to remove physically

a. from the Temple, Luke 2:37

b. from a house, Mark 13:34

c. from a person, Mark 12:12; 14:50; Acts 5:38

d. from all things, Matt. 19:27,29

2. to remove politically, Acts 5:37

3. to remove relationally, Acts 5:38; 15:38; 19:9; 22:29

4. to remove legally (divorce), Deut. 24:1,3 (LXX ) and NT, Matt. 5:31; 19:7; Mark 10:4; I Cor. 7:11

5. to remove a debt, Matt. 18:24

6. to show unconcern by leaving, Matt. 4:20; 22:27; John 4:28; 16:32

7. to show concern by not leaving, John 8:29; 14:18

8. to allow or permit, Matt. 13:30; 19:14; Mark 14:6; Luke 13:8

In a theological sense the verb also has a wide usage:

1. to cancel, pardon, remit the guilt of sin, Exod.32:32 (LXX); Num. 14:19; Job 42:10 and NT, Matt. 6:12,14-15; Mark 11:25-26

2. to refrain from sin, II Tim. 2:19

3. to neglect by moving away from

a. the Law, Matt. 23:23; Acts 21:21

b. the faith, Ezek. 20:8 (LXX ); Luke 8:13; II Thess. 2:3; I Tim. 4:1; Heb. 2:13

Modern believers ask many theological questions that the NT writers would have never thought about. One of these would relate to the modern tendency to separate faith from faithfulness.

There are persons in the Bible who are involved in the people of God and something happens.

I. Old Testament

A. Those who heard the twelve (ten) spies’ report, Numbers 14 (cf. Heb. 3:16-19)

B. Korah, Numbers 16

C. Eli’s sons, I Samuel 2, 4

D. Saul, I Samuel 11-31

E. False prophets (examples)

1. Deut. 13:1-5 18:19-22 (ways to know a false prophet)

2. Jeremiah 28

3. Ezekiel 13:1-7

F. False prophetesses

1. Ezekiel 13:17

2. Nehemiah 6:14

G. Evil leaders of Israel (examples)

1. Jeremiah 5:30-31; 8:1-2; 23:1-4

2. Ezekiel 22:23-31

3. Micah 3:5-12

II. New Testament

A. This Greek term is literally apostasize. The Old and New Testaments both confirm an intensification of evil and false teaching before the Second Coming (cf. Matt. 24:24; Mark 13:22;

Acts 20:29,30; II Thess. 2:9-12; II Tim. 4:4). This Greek term may reflect Jesus’ words in the Parable of the Soils found in Matthew 13; Mark 4; and Luke 8. These false teachers are obviously not Christians, but they came from within (cf. Acts 20:29-30; I John 2:19); however, they are able to seduce and capture immature believers (cf. Heb. 3:12).

The theological question is were the false teachers ever believers? This is difficult to answer because there were false teachers in the local churches (cf. I John 2:18-19). Often our theological

or denominational traditions answer this question without reference to specific Bible texts (except the proof-text method of quoting a verse out of context to supposedly prove one’s bias).

B. Apparent faith

1. Judas, John 17:12

2. Simon Magnus, Acts 8

3. Those spoken of in Matt. 7:13-23

4. Those spoken of in Matthew 13; Mark 4; Luke 8

5. The Jews of John 8:31-59

6. Alexander and Hymenaeus, I Tim. 1:19-20

7. Those of I Tim. 6:21

8. Hymenaeus and Philetus, II Tim. 2:16-18

9. Demas, II Tim. 4:10

10. False teachers, II Peter 2:19-22; Jude vv. 12-19

11. antichrists, I John 2:18-19

C. Fruitless faith1.I Corinthians 3:10-15

2. II Peter 1:8-11

We rarely think about these texts because our systematic theology (Calvinism, Arminianism, etc.) dictates the mandated response. Please do not pre-judge me because I bring up this subject. My concern is proper hermeneutical procedure. We must let the Bible speak to us and not try to mold it into a preset theology. This is often painful and shocking because much of our theology is denominational, cultural or relational (parent, friend, pastor), not biblical. Some who are in the People of God turn out to not be in the People of God (e.g., Rom. 9:6).

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SPECIAL TOPIC: THE CHART OF APOSTLES’ NAMES

Matthew 10:2-4

Mark 3:16-19

Luke 6:14-16

Acts 1:12-18

First Group

Simon (Peter)

Andrew (Peter’s brother)

James (son of Zebedee)

John (James’ brother)

Simon (Peter)

James (son of Zebedee)

John (James’ brother)

Andrew

Simon (Peter)

Andrew (Peter’s brother)

James

John

Peter

John

James

Andrew

Second Group

Philip

Bartholomew

Thomas

Matthew (tax gatherer)

Philip

Bartholomew

Matthew

Thomas

Philip

Bartholomew

Matthew

Thomas

Philip

Thomas

Bartholomew

Matthew

Third Group

James (son of Alphaeus)

Thaddaeus

Simon (the Cananean)

Judas (Iscariot)

James (son of Alphaeus)

Thaddaeus

Simon (the Cananean)

Judas (Iscariot)

James (son of Alphaeus)

Simon (the zealot)

Judas (son of James)

Judas (Iscariot)

James (son of Alphaeus)

Simon (the zealot)

Judas (son of James)

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SPECIAL TOPIC: ARCHĒ

The term “domain” is the Greek term archē, which means the “beginning” or “origin” of something.

1. beginning of the created order (cf. John 1:1; I John 1:1; Heb. 1:10)

2. the beginning of the gospel (cf. Mark 1:1; Phil. 4:15; II Thess. 2:13; Heb. 2:3)

3. first eyewitnesses (cf. Luke 1:2)

4. beginning signs (miracles, cf. John 2:11)

5. beginning principles (cf. Heb. 5:12)

6. beginning assurance based on gospel truths (cf. Heb. 3:14)

7. the beginning, Col. 1:18; Rev. 3:14

It came to be used of “rule” or “authority”

1. of human governing officials

a. Luke 12:11

b. Luke 20:20

c. Romans 13:3; Titus 3:1

2. of angelic authorities

a. Romans 8:38

b. I Cor. 15:24

c. Eph. 1:21; 3:10; 6:12

d. Col. 1:16; 2:10,15

e. Jude v. 6

These false teachers despise all authority, earthly and heavenly. They are antinomian libertines. They put themselves and their desires first before God, angels, civil authorities, and church leaders.

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SPECIAL TOPIC: THE ARK OF THE COVENANT

I. Its purpose

A. the place where YHWH dwelt (i.e., His footstool, cf. I Chr. 28:2; Ps. 132:7; Isa. 66:1) with His people, between the wings of the cherubim

B. the place of forgiveness of sin, for all peoples (cf. Israel, Leviticus 16 and I Kgs. 8:27-30; foreigners, 8:41,43,60)

II. Its contents

A. rabbinical tradition

1. the two tablets of stone on which YHWH wrote the decalog (cf. Exod. 31:18; 32:15-16)

2. the two silver columns which hold the tablets (no biblical references)

3. the fragments of the original two tablets which were broken by Moses because of Israel’s (Aaron) making and worshiping the golden calf (cf. Exod. 32:19; Deut. 9:17; 10:2)

4. a copy of the entire Torah (cf. Exod. 25:16)

5. the names of God (cf. I Kgs. 8:29) developed in Kabalah, Jewish mysticism

B. biblical references as to the contents (it is uncertain if these refer to things inside the ark or beside it)

1. a jar of manna (cf. Exod. 16:31-36)

2. Aaron’s rod that budded (cf. Num. 17:4,10; Heb. 9:4)

3. the guilt offerings of the Philistines (5 golden mice and golden hemorrhoids, cf. I Sam. 6:3-4,8)

4. a copy of the Decalog (cf. Deut. 10:4-5; 31:26)

C. at the dedication of Solomon’s Temple in I Kings 8 the ark is said to have only contained the two tablets of stone (i.e., the Ten Words, cf. I Kgs. 8:9)

III. Its possible location

A. Historical options

1. taken to Egypt by Shishak (935-914 b.c.) when he invaded Judah in the fifth year (926 b.c.) of Rehoboam’s (son of Solomon) reign (cf. I Kgs. 14:25-26; II Chr. 12:9).

2. taken to Egypt (Zoan, Tanis, Avaris—different names for the delta capital of Seti I) by Pharaoh Necco II, who also exiled the Davidic seed Jehoahaz (Josiah’s son) in 597 b.c. (cf. II Kgs.23:31-35; II Chr. 36:1-4)

3. taken to Babylon to the temple of Marduk by Nebuchadnezzar II when Zedekiah was exiled (586 b.c.) and the Temple burned (cf. II Kgs. 25:9,13-17; II Chr. 36:18).

B. Jewish traditions

1. hidden on Mt. Nebo/Pisgah by Jeremiah before the fall of Jerusalem

2. the apocryphal book of II Baruch says an angel hid it

3. hidden by unknown means, but will be returned by Elijah just before the Messiah comes (cf. Mal. 4:5)

4. hidden on Mt. Gerizim (Shechem) where the Samaritans built their temple to YHWH

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SPECIAL TOPIC: Predestination (Calvinism) Versus Human Free Will (Arminianism)

Titus 2:11 is a balance to other NT passages on election. I thought it might be theologically helpful to provide my commentary notes from Romans 8:29 and 9, as well as Ephesians 1.

I. Romans 8:29 – Paul uses “foreknew” (proginōskō, “to know before”) twice, here and 11:2. In 11:2 it refers to God’s covenant love for Israel before time began. Remember that the term “know” in Hebrew related to intimate, personal relationship, not to facts about someone (cf. Gen. 4:1; Jer. 1:5). Here it was

included in a chain of eternal events (cf. Rom. 8:29-30). This term was linked with predestination. However, it must be stated that God’s foreknowledge is not the basis of election because if that were

so, then election would be based on fallen humanity’s future response, which would be human performance. This term is also found in Acts 26:5; I Pet. 1:2,20 and II Pet. 3:17.

A. “foreknew” (proginōskō, “to know before”)

The terms “foreknow” and “predestine” are both compounds with the preposition “before” and therefore, should be translated “to know before,” “to set bounds before,” or “mark off before.” The definitive passages on predestination in the NT are Rom. 8:28-30; Eph. 1:13-14; and Romans 9. These texts obviously stress that God is sovereign. He is in total control of all things. There

is a preset divine plan being worked out in time. However, this plan is not arbitrary or selective. It is based, not only on God’s sovereignty and foreknowledge, but on His unchanging character of love, mercy, and undeserved grace.

We must be careful of our western (American) individualism or our evangelical zeal coloring this wonderful truth. We must also guard against being polarized into the historical, theological conflicts between Augustine versus Pelegius or Calvinism versus Arminianism.

B. “predestined” (proorizō, “to set the bounds before”)

Predestination is not a doctrine meant to limit God’s love, grace, and mercy nor to exclude some from the gospel. It is meant to strengthen believers by molding their world-view. God is for all mankind (cf. I Tim. 2:4; II Pet. 3:9). God is in control of all things. Who or what can separate us from Him (cf. Rom. 8:31-39)? God views all history as present; humans are time bound. Our perspective and mental abilities are limited. There is no contradiction between God’s sovereignty and mankind’s free will. It is a covenantal structure. This is another example of truth given in dialectical tension. Biblical doctrines are presented from different perspectives. They often appear paradoxical. The truth is a balance between the seemingly opposite pairs. We must not remove the tension by picking one of the truths. We must not isolate any biblical truth into a compartment by itself.

It is also important to add that the goal of election is not only heaven when we die, but Christlikeness now (cf. Rom. 8:29; Eph. 1:4; 2:10). We were chosen to be “holy and blameless.” God chooses to change us so that others may see the change and respond by faith to God in Christ. Predestination is not a personal privilege, but a covenantal responsibility. This is the major truth of the passage. This is the goal of Christianity. Holiness is God’s will for every believer. God’s election is to Christlikeness (cf. Eph. 1:4), not a special standing. The image of God, which was given to man in creation (cf. Gen. 1:26; 5:1,3; 9:6), is to be restored.

C. “conformed to the image of His Son”—God’s ultimate goal is the restoration of the image lost in the Fall. Believers are foreordained to Christlikeness (cf. Eph. 1:4).

II. Romans 9

A. Romans 9 is one of the strongest NT passages on God’s sovereignty (the other being Eph. 1:3-14), while chapter 10 states humans’ free will clearly and repeatedly (cf. “everyone” v. 4; “whosoever”

vv. 11,13; “all” v. 12 [twice]). Paul never tries to reconcile this theological tension. They are both true! Most Bible doctrines are presented in paradoxical or dialectical pairs. Most systems of theology are logical half-truths. Augustinianism and Calvinism versus semi-Pelegianism and Arminianism have elements of truth and error. Biblical tension between doctrines is preferable to a proof-texted, dogmatic, rational, theological system that forces the Bible onto a preconceived interpretive grid.

B. This same truth (found in Rom. 9:23) is stated in Rom. 8:29-30 and Eph. 1:4,11. This chapter is the strongest expression of God’s sovereignty in the NT. There can be no dispute that God is in total charge of creation and redemption. This great truth should never be softened or diminished. However, it must be balanced with God’s choice of covenant as a means of relating to human creation, made in His image. It is surely true that some OT covenants, like Genesis 15, are unconditional and do not relate at all to human response, but other covenants are conditioned on human response (e.g., Eden, Noah, Moses, David). God has a plan of redemption for His creation; no human can affect this plan. God has chosen to allow individuals to participate in His plans. This opportunity for participation is a theological tension between sovereignty (Romans 9) and human free will (Romans 10).

It is not appropriate to select one biblical emphasis and ignore another. There is tension between doctrines because eastern people present truth in dialectical or tension-filled pairs. Doctrines must be held in relationship to other doctrines. Truth is a mosaic of truths.

III. Ephesians 1

A. Election is a wonderful doctrine. However, it is not a call to favoritism, but a call to be a channel, a tool, or means of others’ redemption! In the OT the term was used primarily for service; in the NT it is used primarily for salvation which issues in service. The Bible never reconciles the seeming contradiction between God’s sovereignty and mankind’s free will, but affirms them both! A good example of the biblical tension would be Romans 9 on God’s sovereign choice and Romans 10 on mankind’s necessary response (cf. 10:11,13).

The key to this theological tension may be found in 1:4. Jesus is God’s elect man and all are potentially elect in Him (Karl Barth). Jesus is God’s “yes” to fallen mankind’s need (Karl Barth). Ephesians 1:4 also helps clarify the issue by asserting that the goal of predestination is not heaven only, but holiness (Christlikeness). We are often attracted to the benefits of the gospel and ignore the responsibilities! God’s call (election) is for time as well as eternity!

Doctrines come in relation to other truths, not as single, unrelated truths. A good analogy would be a constellation versus a single star. God presents truth in eastern, not western, genres. We must not remove the tension caused by dialectical (paradoxical) pairs of doctrinal truths (God as transcendent versus God as immanent; security vs. perseverance; Jesus as equal with the Father vs. Jesus as subservient to the Father; Christian freedom vs. Christian responsibility to a covenant partner, etc).

The theological concept of “covenant” unites the sovereignty of God (who always takes the initiative and sets the agenda) with a mandatory initial and continuing repentant faith response from man. Be careful of proof-texting one side of the paradox and depreciating the other! Be careful of asserting only your favorite doctrine or system of theology.

B. “He chose us” in Eph. 1:4 is an aorist middle indicative which emphasizes the subject. This focuses on the Father’s choice before time. God’s choice must not be understood in the Islamic sense of determinism, nor in the ultra-Calvinistic sense as some versus others, but in the covenantal sense. God promised to redeem fallen mankind (cf. Gen. 3:15). God called and chose Abraham to choose all humans (cf. Gen. 12:3; Exod. 19:5-6). God Himself elected all persons who would exercise faith in Christ. God always takes the initiative in salvation (cf. John 6:44,65). This text and Romans 9 are the biblical basis for the doctrine of predestination emphasized by Augustine and Calvin.

God chose believers not only to salvation (justification), but also to sanctification (cf. Co1:12). This could relate to (1) our position in Christ (cf. II Cor. 5:21) or (2) God’s desire to reproduce His

character in His children (cf. 2:10; Rom. 8:28-29; Gal. 4:19). God’s will for His children is both heaven one day and Christlikeness now!

“In Him” is a key concept of Eph. 1:4. The Father’s blessings, grace, and salvation flow through Christ (cf. John 14:6). Notice the repetition of this grammatical form (locative of sphere) in v. 3, “in Christ”; v. 4, “in Him”; v. 7, “in Him”; v. 9, “in Him”; v. 10, “in Christ,” “in Him”; v. 12, “in Christ” and v. 13, “in Him” (twice). Jesus is God’s “yes” to fallen mankind (Karl Barth). Jesus is the elect man and all are potentially elect in Him. All of God the Father’s blessings flow through Christ.

The phrase “before the foundation of the world” is also used in Matt. 25:34; John 17:24; I Pet. 1:19-20 and Rev. 13:8. It shows the Triune God’s redemptive activity even before Gen. 1:1. Humans are limited by their sense of time; everything to us is past, present, and future, but not to God.

The goal of predestination is holiness, not privilege. God’s call is not to a selected few of Adam’s children, but to all! It is a call to be what God intended mankind to be, like Himself (cf. I Thess. 5:23; II Thess. 2:13); in His image (cf. Gen. 1:26-27). To turn predestination into a theological tenet instead of a holy life is a tragedy. Often our theologies speak louder than the biblical text.

The term “blameless” (amōmos) or “free from blemish” is used of (1) Jesus (cf. Heb. 9:14; I Pet. 1:19); (2) Zachariah and Elizabeth (cf. Luke 1:6); (3) Paul (cf. Phil. 3:6); and (4) all true Christians (cf. Phil. 2:15; I Thess. 3:13; 5:23). God’s unalterable will for every Christian is not only heaven later, but Christlikeness now (cf. Rom. 8:29-30; Gal. 4:19; I Pet. 1:2). Believers are to reflect God’s characteristics to a lost world for the purpose of evangelism.

Grammatically the phrase “in love” in this verse could go with either v. 4 or v. 5. However, when this phrase is used in other places in Ephesians it always refers to human love for God (cf. 3:17; 4:2,15,16).

C. In Eph. 1:5 the phrase “He predestined us” is an aorist active participle. This Greek term is a compound of “before” and “mark off.” It refers to God’s predetermined redemptive plan (cf. Luke 22:22; Acts 2:23; 4:28; 17:31; Rom. 8:29-30). Predestination is one of several truths related to mankind’s salvation. It is part of a theological pattern or series of related truths. It was never meant to be emphasized in isolation! Biblical truth has been given in a series of tension-filled, paradoxical pairs. Denominationalism has tended to remove the biblical tension by emphasizing only one of the dialectical truths (predestination versus human free will; security of the believer versus perseverance of the saints; original sin versus volitional sin; sinlessness versus sinning less; instantaneously declared sanctification versus progressive sanctification; faith versus works; Christian freedom versus Christian responsibility; transcendence versus immanence).

God’s choice is not based on foreknowledge of human performance, but on His gracious character (cf. vv. 9 & 11). He wishes that all (not just some special ones like the Gnostics or modern-day ultra-Calvinists) would be saved (cf. Ezek. 18:21-23,32; John 3:16-17; I Tim. 2:4; 4:10; Titus 2:11; II Pet. 3:9). God’s grace (God’s character) is the theological key to this passage (cf. vv. 6a, 7c, 9b), as God’s mercy is the key to the other passage on predestination, Romans 9-11.

Fallen mankind’s only hope is the grace and mercy of God (cf. Isa. 53:6 and several other OT texts quoted in Rom. 3:9-18). It is crucial in interpreting these first theological chapters to realize that Paul emphasizes those things which are totally unrelated to human performance: predestination (chap. 1), grace (chap. 2), and God’s eternal plan of redemption (mystery, 2:11- 3:13). This was to counterbalance the emphasis of the false teachers on human merit and pride.

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SPECIAL TOPIC: THE ASCENSION

There are a number of different Greek words used to describe Jesus’ ascension back to heaven:

1. Acts 1:2,11,22; analambanō, to take up (cf. I Tim. 3:16), which is also used in the Septuagint of II Kgs. 2:9,11 for Elijah’s translation to heaven and also I Maccabees 2:58

2. Acts 1:9, epairō, to lift up, to raise up, to elevate

3. Luke 9:51, analēpsis (form of #1)

4. diistēmi, to depart

5. John 6:62, anabainō, to ascend

This event is not recorded in Matthew or Mark’s Gospel. Mark’s Gospel ends at 16:8, but one of the three later scribal addition describes the event in 16:19 (i.e., analambanō).

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SPECIAL TOPIC: ASSURANCE

A. Can Christians know they are saved (cf. I John 5:13)? I John has three tests or evidences.

1. Doctrinal (belief) (vv. 1,5,10; 2:18-25; 4:1-6,14-16; 5:11-12)

2. Lifestyle (obedience) (vv. 2-3; 2:3-6; 3:1-10; 5:18)

3. Social (love) (vv, 2-3; 2:7-11; 3:11-18; 4:7-12, 16-21)

B. Assurance has become a denominational issue

1. John Calvin based assurance on God’s election. He said that we can never be certain in this life.

2. John Wesley based assurance on religious experience. He believed that we have the ability to live above known sin.

3. Roman Catholics and the Church of Christ base assurance on an authoritative Church. The group to which one belongs is the key to assurance.

4. Most evangelicals base assurance on the promises of the Bible, linked to the fruit of the Spirit in the life of the believer (cf. Gal. 5:22-23).

C. I think fallen mankind’s primary assurance is linked to the character of the Triune God

1. God the Father’s love

a. John 3:16; 10:28-29

b. Romans 8:31-39

c. Ephesians 2:5,8-9

d. Philippians 1:6

e. I Peter 1:3-5

f. I John 4:7-21

2. God the Son’s actions

a. death on our behalf

1) Acts 2:23

2) Romans 5:6-11

3) II Corinthians 5:21

4) I John 2:2; 4:9-10

b. high priestly prayer (John 17:12)

c. continuing intercession

1) Romans 8:34

2) Hebrews 7:25

3) I John 2:1

3. God the Spirit’s ministry

a. calling (John 6:44,65)

b. sealing

1) II Corinthians 1:22; 5:5

2) Ephesians 1:13-14; 4:3

c. assuring

1) Romans 8:16-17

2) I John 5:7-13

D. But humans must respond to God’s covenant offer (both initially and continually)

1. believers must turn from sin (repentance) and to God through Jesus (faith)

a. Mark 1:15

b. Acts 3:16,19; 20:21

2. believers must receive God’s offer in Christ

a. John 1:12; 3:16

b. Romans 5:1 (and by analogy 10:9-13)

c. Ephesians 2:5,8-9

3. believers must continue in the faith

a. Mark 13:13

b. I Corinthians 15:2

c. Galatians 6:9

d. Hebrews 3:14

e. II Peter 1:10

f. Jude 20-21

g. Revelation 2:2-3,7,10,17,19,25-26; 3:5,10,11,21

4. believers face three tests

a. doctrinal (vv. 1,5,10; 2:18-25; 4:1-6,14-16)

b. lifestyle (vv. 2-3; 2:3-6; 3:1-10)

c. social (vv, 2-3; 2:7-11; 3:11-18; 4:7-12, 16-21)

E. Assurance is difficult because

1. often believers seek certain experiences not promised in the Bible

2. often believers do not fully understand the gospel

3. often believers continue to willfully sin (cf. I Cor. 3:10-15; 9:27; I Tim. 1:19-20; II Tim. 4:10; II Pet. 1:8-11)

4. certain personality types (i.e. perfectionists) can never accept God’s unconditional acceptance and love

5. in the Bible there are examples of false professions (cf. Matt. 13:3-23; 7:21-23; Mark 4:14-20; II Pet. 2:19-20; I John 2:18-19)

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SPECIAL TOPIC: AUTHOR/LEADER (ARCHĒGOS)

The term “author” or “leader” is the Greek term archēgos. It comes from the Greek root “beginning” (archē) and “to go” or “to lead” (agō). This compound came to be used of a ruler, prince, or leader (human or angelic). The term is only used three other times in the NT:

1. Prince or author in Acts 3:15

2. prince or leader (cf. Acts 5:21)

3. the author (or pioneer) and perfecter of the faith in Heb. 12:2.

Jesus is the starter, the provider, and the finisher of salvation.

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SPECIAL TOPIC: AUTHORITY (EXOUSIA)

It is interesting to observe Luke’s use of exousia (authority, power, or legal right).

1. In 4:6 Satan claims to be able to give Jesus authority.

2. In 4:32,36 the Jewish people were amazed at how Jesus taught using His personal authority.

3. In 9:1 He gave His power and authority to His Apostles.

4. In 10:19 He gave His authority to the seventy missionaries.

5. In 20:2,8 the central question of Jesus’ authority is asked.

6. In 22:53 evil has been allowed authority to condemn and kill Jesus.

Although not in Luke, Matthew’s introduction to the Great Commission, “all authority has been given to Me in heaven and on earth,” is a marvelous statement (Matt. 28:18).

Jesus’ answer to their question would have been

1. God’s spoken words at His

a. baptism (Luke 3:21-22)

b. transfiguration (Luke 9:35)

2. OT fulfilled prophecy

a. tribe of Judah (cf. Gen. 49:10)

b. family of Jesse (cf. II Samuel7)

c. born in Bethlehem (cf. Micah 5:2)

d. Born during the fourth empire (Rome) of Daniel 2

e. helped the poor, blind, needy (Isaiah)

3. His exorcisms revealed His power and authority over Satan and his kingdom.

4. His resuscitations of the dead showed His power over physical life and death.

5. His miracles all reveal His power and authority over the temporal, spacial, and physical.

a. nature

b. feedings

c. healings

d. mind readings

e. catching fish

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SPECIAL TOPIC: BAPTISM

Curtis Vaughan, Acts, has an interesting footnote on p. 28.

“The Greek word for ‘baptized’ is a third person imperative; the word for ‘repent,’ a second person imperative. This change from the more direct second person command to the less direct third person of ‘baptized’ implies that Peter’s basic primary demand is for repentance.”

This follows the preaching emphasis of John the Baptist (cf. Matt. 3:2) and Jesus (cf. Matt. 4:17). Repentance seems to be a spiritual key and baptism is an outward expression of this spiritual change. The New Testament knew nothing of unbaptized believers! To the early church baptism was the public profession of faith. It is the occasion for the public confession of faith in Christ, not the mechanism for salvation! It needs to be remembered that baptism is not mentioned in Peter’s second sermon, though repentance is (cf. 3:19; Luke 24:17). Baptism was an example set by Jesus (cf. Matt. 3:13-18). Baptism was commanded by Jesus (cf. Matt. 28:19). The modern question of the necessity of baptism for salvation is not addressed in the New Testament; all believers are expected to be baptized. However, one must also guard against a sacramental mechanicalism! Salvation is a faith issue, not a right-place, right-words, right-ritual act issue!

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SPECIAL TOPIC: BARNABAS

I. The Man

A. born in Cyprus (cf. Acts 4:36)

B. of the tribe of Levi (cf. Acts 4:36)

C. nicknamed “son of encouragement” (cf. Acts 4:36; 11:23)

D. a member of the Jerusalem church (cf. Acts 11:22)

E. he had the spiritual gifts of a prophet and teacher (cf. Acts 13:1)

F. called an apostle (cf. Acts 14:14)

II. His Ministry

A. in Jerusalem

1. sold his property and gave all the money to the Apostles to help the poor (cf. Acts 4:37)

2. leader in the Jerusalem church (cf. Acts 11:22)

B. with Paul

1. He was one of the first to trust Paul’s conversion (cf. Acts 11:24).

2. He went to Tarsus find Paul and get him to help with the new church in Antioch (cf. Acts 11:24-26).

3. The church at Antioch sent Barnabas and Saul to the church in Jerusalem with a contribution for the poor (cf. Acts 11:29-30).

4. Barnabas and Paul go on the first missionary journey (cf. Acts 13:1-3)

5. Barnabas was the team leader on Cyprus (his home island), but soon Paul’s leadership was recognized (cf. Acts 13:13)

6. They reported to the church in Jerusalem to explain and document their mission work among the Gentiles (cf. Acts 15, called the Jerusalem Council).

7. Barnabas and Paul had their first disagreement about Jewish food laws and Gentile fellowship recorded in Gal. 2:11-14.

8. Barnabas and Paul planned a second missionary journey, but a dispute broke out over Barnabas’ cousin, John Mark (cf. Col. 4:10), who deserted the work on the first mission trip (cf. Acts 13:13). Paul refused to take him on the second mission trip, so the team broke up (cf. Acts 15:36-41). This resulted in two teams (i.e., Barnabas and John Mark and Paul and Silas).

III. Church Tradition (Eusebius)

A. Barnabas was one of the seventy sent out by Jesus (cf. Luke 10:1-20).

B. He died as a Christian martyr on his home island, Cyprus.

C. Tertullian says he wrote the book of Hebrews.

D. Clement of Alexandria says he wrote the non-canonical book of the Epistle of Barnabas.

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SPECIAL TOPIC: BE MADE STRONG

This term (krataioō) in the passive voice is used several times in the NT in different senses.

1. Jesus’ natural development as a human being, Luke 1:80; 2:40

2. believers strengthened by the Holy Spirit, Eph. 6:16

3. believers to be firm or resolute in their faith in the face of the internal struggles in the Corinthian church, I Cor. 16:13

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SPECIAL TOPIC: FAITH, BELIEVE, OR TRUST (Pistis [noun], Pisteuō, [verb], Pistos [adjective])

A. This is such an important term in the Bible (cf. Heb. 11:1,6). It is the subject of Jesus’ early preaching (cf. Mark 1:15). There are at least two new covenant requirements: repentance and faith (cf. 1:15; Acts 3:16,19; 20:21).

B. Its etymology

1. The term “faith” in the OT meant loyalty, fidelity, or trustworthiness and was a description of God’s nature, not ours.

2. It came from a Hebrew term (emun, emunah), which meant “to be sure or stable.” Saving faith is mental assent (set of truths), moral living (a lifestyle), and primarily a relational (welcoming of a person) and volitional commitment (a decision) to that person.

C. Its OT usage

It must be emphasized that Abraham’s faith was not in a future Messiah, but in God’s promise that he would have a child and descendants (cf. Genesis 12:2; 15:2-5; 17:4-8; 18:14). Abraham responded to this promise by trusting in God. He still had doubts and problems about this promise, which took thirteen years to be fulfilled. His imperfect faith, however, was accepted by God. God is willing to work with flawed human beings who respond to Him and His promises in faith, even if it is the size of a mustard seed (cf. Matt. 17:20).

D. Its NT usage

The term “believed” is from the Greek term (pisteuō) which can also be translated “believe,” “faith,” or “trust.” For example, the noun does not occur in the Gospel of John, but the verb is used often. In John 2:23-25 there is uncertainty as to the genuineness of the crowd’s commitment to Jesus of Nazareth as the Messiah. Other examples of this superficial use of the term “believe” are in John 8:31-59 and Acts 8:13, 18-24. True biblical faith is more than an initial response. It must be followed by a process of discipleship (cf. Matt. 13:20-22,31-32).

E. Its use with prepositions

1. eis means “into.” This unique construction emphasizes believers putting their trust/faith in Jesus

a. into His name (John 1:12; 2:23; 3:18; I John 5:13)

b. into Him (John 2:11; 3:15,18; 4:39; 6:40; 7:5,31,39,48; 8:30; 9:36; 10:42; 11:45,48; 17:37,42; Matt. 18:6; Acts 10:43; Phil. 1:29; I Pet. 1:8)

c. into Me (John 6:35; 7:38; 11:25,26; 12:44,46; 14:1,12; 16:9; 17:20)

d. into the Son (John 3:36; 9:35; I John 5:10)

e. into Jesus (John 12:11; Acts 19:4; Gal. 2:16)

f. into Light (John 12:36)

g. into God (John 14:1)

2. en means “in” as in John 3:15; Mark 1:15; Acts 5:14

3. epi means “in” or upon, as in Matt. 27:42; Acts 9:42; 11:17; 16:31; 22:19; Rom. 4:5,24; 9:33; 10:11; I Tim. 1:16; I Pet. 2:6

4. the dative case with no preposition as in Gal. 3:6; Acts 18:8; 27:25; I John 3:23; 5:10

5. hoti, which means “believe that,” gives content as to what to believe

a. Jesus is the Holy One of God (John 6:69)

b. Jesus is the I Am (John 8:24)

c. Jesus is in the Father and the Father is in Him (John 10:38)

d. Jesus is the Messiah (John 11:27; 20:31)

e. Jesus is the Son of God (John 11:27; 20:31)

f. Jesus was sent by the Father (John 11:42; 17:8,21)

g. Jesus is one with the Father (John 14:10-11)

h. Jesus came from the Father (John 16:27,30)

i. Jesus identified Himself in the covenant name of the Father, “I Am” (John 8:24; 13:19)

j. We will live with Him (Rom. 6:8)

k. Jesus died and rose again (I Thess. 4:14)

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SPECIAL TOPIC: JOHN’S USE OF THE VERB “BELIEVE” (the noun is rare)

John primarily combines “believe” with a preposition

A. eis means “into.” This unique construction emphasizes believers putting their trust/faith in Jesus

1. into His name (John 1:12; 2:23; 3:18; I John 5:13)

2. into Him (John 2:11; 3:15,18; 4:39; 6:40; 7:5,31,39,48; 8:30; 9:36; 10:42; 11:45,48; 12:37,42)

3. into Me (John 6:35; 7:38; 11:25,26; 12:44,46; 14:1,12; 16:9; 17:20)

4. into the One He has sent (John 6:28-29)

5. into the Son (John 3:36; 9:35; I John 5:10)

6. into Jesus (John 12:11)

7. into Light (John 12:36)

8. into God (John 12:44; 14:1)

B. ev means “in” as in John 3:15 (Mark 1:15)

C. the dative case with no preposition (I John 3:23; 4:50; 5:10)

D. hoti, which means “believe that,” gives content as to what to believe. Some examples are

1. Jesus is the Holy One of God (6:69)

2. Jesus is the I Am (8:24)

3. Jesus in the Father and the Father in Him (10:38)

4. Jesus is the Christ (11:27; 20:31)

5. Jesus is the Son of God (11:27; 20:31)

6. Jesus was sent by the Father (11:42; 17:8,21)

7. Jesus is one with the Father (14:10-11)

8. Jesus came from the Father (16:27,30)

9. Jesus identified Himself in the covenant name of the Father, “I am” (8:24; 13:19)

Biblical faith is in both a person and a message! It is evidenced by obedience, love, and perseverance.

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SPECIAL TOPIC: BELIEVERS’ INHERITANCE

The Scriptures talk about believers inheriting (cf. Acts 20:32; 26:18; Eph. 1:4; Col. 1:12; 3:24) many things because of their family relationship with Jesus who is heir of all things (cf. Heb. 1:2), and they as coheirs (cf. Rom. 8:17; Gal. 4:7) of

‒ the kingdom (cf. Matt. 25:34, I Cor. 6:9-10; 15:50; Eph. 5:5)

‒ eternal life (cf. Matt. 19:29; Heb. 9:15)

‒ God’s promises (cf. Heb. 6:12)

‒ God’s protection of His promises (cf. I Pet. 1:4-5)

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SPECIAL TOPIC: BERNICE

1. She was the oldest daughter of Herod Agrippa I.

2. She was the sister of Agrippa II, and for a period of time was his incestuous lover. Later she was a mistress to Titus while he was a general.

3. She was also Felix’s third wife, Drusilla’s sister.

4. She was married to Herod Chalcis (Herod Agrippa I’s brother, her uncle), but when he died she moved in with her brother.

5. She later married Polemon, King of Cilicia, but left him to return to her brother who had just been given the title of “King.”

6. She was the mistress of both Vespasian and Titus.

7. For historical references

a. Josephus’ Jewish Wars 2:11:6; 15:1; 17:1.

b.Josephus’ Antiquities of the Jew 19:9:1; 15:1; 20:1:3

c. Tactius’ History 2:2

d. Seutonius’ Life of Titus 7

e. Dio Cassius’ Histories 65:15; 66:18

f. Juvenal’s Satire 61:156-157

SPECIAL TOPIC: BLAMELESS, INNOCENT, GUILTLESS, WITHOUT REPROACH

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A. Opening Statements

1. This concept theologically describes mankind’s original state (i.e., Genesis 1, the Garden of Eden).

2. Sin and rebellion have decimated this condition of perfect fellowship (i.e., Genesis 3).

3. Humans (male and female) long for the restoration of fellowship with God because they are made in His image and likeness (i.e., Gen. 1:26-27).

4. God has dealt with sinful mankind in several ways

a. godly leaders (i.e., Abraham, Moses, Isaiah)

b. sacrificial system (i.e., Leviticus 1-7)

c. godly examples (i.e., Noah, Job)

5. Ultimately God provided the Messiah

a. as full revelation of Himself

b. as the perfect sacrifice for sin

6. Christians are made blameless

a. legally through Christ’s imputed righteousness

b. progressively through the work of the Spirit

c. the goal of Christianity is Christlikeness (cf. Rom. 8:28-29; Eph. 1:4), which in reality, is the restoration of the image of God lost in the fall of Adam and Eve.

7. Heaven is a restoration of the perfect fellowship of the Garden of Eden. Heaven is the New Jerusalem coming down out of God’s presence (cf. Rev. 21:2) to a purified earth (cf. II Pet. 3:10). The Bible begins and ends on the same themes.

a. intimate, personal fellowship with God

b. in a garden setting (Genesis 1-2 and Revelation 21-22)

c. by prophetic statement, the presence and companionship of animals (cf. Isa. 11:6-9)

B. Old Testament

1. There are so many different Hebrew words that carry the concept of perfection, blamelessness, innocence that it would be hard to name and show all the intricate relationships.

2. The main terms carrying the concept of perfection, guiltlessness, or innocence (according to Robert B. Girdlestone, Synonyms of the Old Testament, pp. 94-99) are:

a. shalom (BDB1022)

b. thamam (BDB1070)

c. calah (BDB478)

3. The Septuagint (i.e., the Bible of the early church) translates many of these concepts into Koine Greek terms used in the NT.

4. The key concept is connected to the sacrificial system.

a. amōmos (cf. Exod. 29:1; Lev. 1:3,10; 3:1,6; Num. 6:14)

b. amiantos and aspilus also have cultic connotations

C. New Testament

1. the legal concept

a. the Hebrew legal cultic connotation is translated by amōmos (cf. Eph. 5:27; Phil. 2:15; I Pet. 1:19)

b. the Greek legal connotation (cf. I Cor. 1:8; Col. 1:22)

2. Christ is the sinless, blameless, innocent One (amōmos, cf. Heb. 9:14; I Pet. 1:19)

3. Christ’s followers must emulate Him (amōmos, cf. Eph. 1:4; 5:27; Phil. 2:15; Col. 1:22; II Pet. 3:14; Jude v. 24; Rev. 14:5)

4. This concept is also used of church leaders

a. anegklētos, “without accusation” (cf. I Tim. 3:10; Titus 1:6-7)

b. anepileptos, “above criticism” or “no handle for reproach” (cf. I Tim. 3:2; 5:7; 6:14; Titus 2:8)

5. The concept of “undefiled” (amiantos) is used of

a. Christ Himself (cf. Heb. 7:26)

b. the Christian’s inheritance (cf. I Pet. 1:4)

6. The concept of “wholeness” or “soundness” (holoklēria) (cf. Acts 3:16; I Thess. 5:23; James 1:4)

7. The concept of “without fault,” guiltless innocence is conveyed by amemptos (cf. Luke 1:6; Phil. 2:15; 3:6; I Thess. 2:10; 3:13; 5:23)

8. The concept of “not subject to blame” is conveyed by amōmētos (cf. I Pet. 3:14)

9. The concept of “spotless,” “unblemished” is often used in passages that have one of the above terms also (cf. I Tim. 6:14; James 1:27; I Pet. 1:19; II Pet. 3:14)

D. The number of words in Hebrew and Greek which convey this concept shows its importance. God has provided our need through Christ and now calls on us to be like Him.

Believers are positionally, forensically declared “right,” “just,” “blameless” by the work of Christ. Now believers are to possess their position. “Walk in the light as He is in the light” (cf.

I John 1:7). “Walk worthy of the calling” (cf. Eph. 4:1,17; 5:2,15). Jesus has restored the image of God. Intimate fellowship is now possible, but remember God wants a people who reflect His character, as His Son did. We are called to nothing less than holiness (cf. Matt. 5:20,48; Eph. 1:4; I Pet. 1:13-16). God’s holiness, not only legally, but existentially!

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SPECIAL TOPIC: BOASTING

These Greek terms, kauchaomai, kauchēma, and kauchēsis, are used about thirty five times by Paul and only twice in the rest of the NT (both in James). Its predominate use is in I and II Corinthians.

There are two main truths connected to boasting.

A. no flesh shall glory/boast before God (cf. I Cor. 1:29; Eph. 2:9)

B. believers should glory in the Lord (cf. I Cor. 1:31; II Cor. 10:17, which is an allusion to Jer. 9:23-24)

Therefore, there is appropriate and inappropriate boasting/glorying (i.e., pride).

A. appropriate

1. in the hope of glory (cf. Rom. 4:2)

2. in God through the Lord Jesus (cf. Rom. 5:11)

3. in the cross of the Lord Jesus Christ (i.e., Paul’s main theme, cf. I Cor. 1:17-18; Gal. 6:14)

4. Paul boasts in

a. his ministry without compensation (cf. I Cor. 9:15,16; II Cor. 10:12)

b. his authority from Christ (cf. II Cor. 10:8,12)

c. his not boasting in other men’s labor (as some at Corinth were, cf. II Cor. 10:15)

d. his racial heritage (as others were doing at Corinth, cf. II Cor. 11:17; 12:1,5,6)

e. his churches

(1) Corinth (II Cor. 7:4,14; 8:24; 9:2; 11:10)

(2) Thessalonika (cf. II Thess. 1:4)

(3) his confidence in God’s comfort and deliverance (cf. II Cor. 1:12)

B. inappropriate

1. in relation to Jewish heritage (cf. Rom. 2:17,23; 3:27; Gal. 6:13)

2. some in the Corinthian church were boasting

a. in men (cf. I Cor. 3:21)

b. in wisdom (cf. I Cor. 4:7)

c. in freedom (cf. I Cor. 5:6)

3. false teachers tried to boast in the church at Corinth (cf. II Cor. 11:12)

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SPECIAL TOPIC: BOB’S EVANGELICAL BIASES

I must admit to you the reader that I am biased at this point. My systematic theology is not Calvinism or Dispensationalical, but it is Great Commission evangelism (cf. Matt. 28:18-20; Luke 24:46-47; Acts 1:8). I believe God had an eternal plan for the redemption of all mankind (e.g., Gen. 3:15; 12:3; Exod. 19:5-6; Jer. 31:31-34; Ezekiel 18; 36:22-39; Acts 2:23; 3:18; 4:28; 13:29; Rom. 3:9-18,19-20,21-31), all those created in His image and likeness (cf. Gen. 1:26-27). The covenants are united in Christ (cf. Gal. 3:28-29; Col. 3:11). Jesus is the mystery of God, hidden but now revealed (cf. Eph. 2:11-3:13)! The NT gospel, not Israel, is the key to Scripture.

This pre-understanding colors all my interpretations of Scripture. I read all texts through it! It is surely a bias (all interpreters have them!), but it is a Scripturally-informed presupposition.

SPECIAL TOPIC: BODY AND SPIRIT

Body and spirit are not an ontological dichotomy in mankind, but a dual relationship to both this planet and to God. The Hebrew word nephesh (i.e., soul) is used of both mankind and the animals in Genesis, while “spirit” (ruah) is used uniquely of mankind. This is not a proof-text on the nature of mankind as a two-part (dichotomous, cf. I Cor. 7:34; Heb. 4:12) or three-part (trichotomous) being (cf. I Thess. 5:23). Mankind is primarily represented in the Bible as a unity (cf. Gen. 2:7; II Cor. 7:1). For a good summary of the theories of mankind as trichotomous, dichotomous, or a unity, see Millard J. Erickson’s Christian Theology (second edition), pp. 538-557 and Frank Stagg’s Polarities of Man’s Existence in Biblical Perspective.

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SPECIAL TOPIC: BOLDNESS (PARRĒSIA)

This Greek term is a compound of “all” (pan) and “speech” (rhēsis). This freedom or boldness in speech often had the connotation of a boldness amidst opposition or rejection (cf. John 7:13; I Thess. 2:2).

In John’s writings (used 13 times) it often denotes a public proclamation (cf. John 7:4, also in Paul’s writings, Col. 2:15). However, sometimes it simply means “plainly” (cf. John 10:24; 11:14; 16:25,29).

In Acts the Apostles speak the message about Jesus in the same manner (with boldness) as Jesus spoke about the Father and His plans and promises (cf. Acts 2:29; 4:13,29,31; 9:27-28; 13:46; 14:3; 18:26; 19:8; 26:26; 28:31). Paul also asked for prayer that he might boldly preach the gospel (cf. Eph. 6:19; I Thess. 2:2) and live the gospel (cf. Phil. 1:20).

Paul’s eschatological hope in Christ gave him boldness and confidence to preach the gospel in this current evil age (cf. II Cor. 3:11-12). He also had confidence that Jesus’ followers would act appropriately (cf. II Cor. 7:4).

There is one more aspect to this term. Hebrews uses it in a unique sense of boldness in Christ to approach God and speak to Him (cf. Heb. 3:6; 4:16; 10:19,35). Believers are fully accepted and welcomed into intimacy with the Father through the Son!

It is used in several ways in the NT.

1. a confidence, boldness, or assurance related to

a. men (cf. Acts 2:29; 4:13,31; II Cor. 3:12; Eph. 6:19)

b. God (cf. I John 2:28; 3:21; 4:12; 5:14; Heb. 3:6; 4:!6; 10:19)

2. to speak openly, plainly, or unambiguously (cf. Mark 8:32; John 7:13; 10:24; 11:14; 16:25; Acts 28:31)

3. to speak publically (cf. John 7:26; 11:54; 18:20)

4. the related form (parrhēsiazomai) is used to preach boldly amidst difficult circumstances (cf. Acts 18:26; 19:8; Eph. 6:20; I Thess. 2:2)

In this context it refers to an eschatological confidence. Believers do not fear the Second Coming of Christ; they embrace it with confident enthusiasm because they abide in Christ and live Christlike lives.

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SPECIAL TOPIC: BURIAL PRACTICES

I. Mesopotamia

A. Proper burial was very important to a happy afterlife.

B. An example of a Mesopotamian curse is, “May the earth not receive your corpses.”

II. Old Testament

A. Proper burial was very important (cf. Eccl. 6:3).

B. It was done very quickly (cf. Sarah in Genesis 23 and Rachel in Gen. 35:19 and notice Deut. 21:23).

C. Improper burial was a sign of rejection and sin.

1. Deuteronomy 28:26

2. Isaiah 14:20

3. Jeremiah 8:2; 22:19

D. Burial was done if possible in family vaults in the home area.

E. There was no embalming, like Egypt. Mankind came from dust and must return to dust (ex. Gen. 3:19; Ps. 103:14; 104:29).

F. In rabbinical Judaism it was difficult to balance a proper respect and handling of the body with the concept of ceremonial defilement connected to dead bodies.

III. New Testament

A. Burial followed death quickly, usually within twenty-four hours. The Jews often watched the grave for three days, believing that the soul could return to the body within that time frame (cf. John 11:39).

B. Burial involved the cleaning and wrapping of the body with spices (cf. John 11:44; 19:39-40).

C. There were no distinctive Jewish or Christian burial procedures or items placed in the grave in first century Palestine.

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SPECIAL TOPIC: BURIAL SPICES

A. Myrrh, a fragrant gum from Arabian trees

1. This spice is mentioned twelve times in the OT, mostly in wisdom literature as a perfume

2. It was one of the gifts brought by the Magi to baby Jesus (cf. Matt. 2:11)

3. Its symbolism is striking

a. used in “holy anointing oil” (Exod. 30:23-25)

b. used as a gift for a king (Matt. 2:11)

c. used to anoint Jesus at His burial (cf. John 19:39 and symbolically in John 11:2). This was according to Jewish customs described in the Talmud (i.e., Berakhoth 53a).

B. Aloes, a fragrant type of wood

1. connected to fragrant perfume (cf. Num. 24:6; Ps. 45:8; Pro. 7:17; Song of Songs 4:14)

2. it was used, mixed with myrrh, by the Egyptians as part of the embalming process

3. Nicodemus brought a large amount of this to Jesus’ burial and anointed Him with it (cf. John 19:39). This was according to Jewish customs described in the Talmud (i.e., Betsah 6a).

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SPECIAL TOPIC: CALLED

God always takes the initiative in calling, electing, and wooing believers to Himself (cf. John 6:44, 65; 15:16; I Cor. 1:12; Eph. 1:4-5,11). The term “calling” is used in several theological senses.

A. Sinners are called to salvation by the grace of God through the finished work of Christ and the conviction of the Spirit (i.e., klētos, cf. Rom. 1:6-7; 9:24, which is theologically similar to I Cor. 1:1-2 and II Tim. 1:9; II Pet. 1:10).

B. Sinners call on the name of the Lord to be saved (i.e., epikaleō, cf. Acts 2:21; 22:16; Rom. 10:9-13). This statement is a Jewish worship idiom.

C. Believers are called to live Christlike lives (i.e., klēsis, cf. I Cor. 1:26; 7:20; Eph. 4:1; Phil. 3:14;

II Thess. 1:11; II Tim. 1:9).

D. Believers are called to ministry tasks (cf. Acts 13:2; I Cor. 12:4-7; Eph. 4:1).

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SPECIAL TOPIC: HEBREW CANON

The Hebrew Bible is divided into three divisions (the English Bible follows the order of the Septuagint).

1. The Torah (Pentateuch), Genesis - Deuteronomy

2. The Prophets

a. former prophets, Joshua - Kings (except Ruth)

b. later prophets, Isaiah - Malachi (except Lamentations and Daniel)

3. The Writings

a. Wisdom Literature, Job - Proverbs

b. Post-exilic Literature, Ezra - Esther

c. Megilloth (five scrolls)

(1) Ruth (read at Pentecost)

(2) Ecclesiastes (read at tabernacles)

(3) Song of Songs (read at Passover)

(4) Lamentations (read to remember the fall of Jerusalem in 586 b.c.)

(5) Esther (read at Purim)

d. I and II Chronicles

e. Daniel

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SPECIAL TOPIC: THE CHRISTIAN AND PEACE

This Greek term originally meant “binding together that which was broken” (cf. John 14:27; 16:33; Phil. 4:7). There are three ways the NT speaks of peace:

1. as objective aspect of our peace with God through Christ (cf. Col. 1:20)

2. as subjective aspect of our being right with God (cf. John 14:27; 16:33; Phil. 4:7)

3. that God has united into one new body, through Christ, both believing Jew and Gentile (cf. Eph. 2:14-17; Col. 3:15).

Newman and Nida, A Translator’s Handbook on Paul’s Letter to the Romans, p. 92, has a good comment about “peace.”

“Both in the Old Testament and in the New Testament the term peace has a wide range of meaning. Basically it describes the total well-being of a person’s life; it was even adopted among the Jews as a formula of greeting. This term had such a profound meaning that it could also be used by the Jews as a description of the Messianic salvation. Because of this fact, there are times when it is used almost synonymously with the term rendered ‘to be in a right relation with God.’ Here the term appears to be used as a description of the harmonious relation established between man and God on the basis of God’s having put man right with himself” (p. 92).

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SPECIAL TOPIC: CHRISTIAN ASSURANCE

Assurance is (1) a biblical truth, (2) a believer’s faith experience, and (3) and lifestyle.

A. The biblical basis for assurance is

1. God the Father’s character

a. Genesis 3:15; 12:3

b. Psalm 46:10

c. John 3:16; 10:28-29

d. Romans 8:38-39

e. Ephesians 1:3-14; 2:5,8-9

f. Philippians 1:6

g. II Timothy 1:12

h. I Peter 1:3-5

2. God the Son’s work

a. His priestly prayer, John 17:9-24, especially v. 12

b. His substitutionary sacrifice

1) Romans 8:31

2) II Corinthians 5:21

3) I John 4:9-10

c. His continuing intercession

1) Romans 8:34

2) Hebrews 7:25

3) I John 2:1

3. God the Spirit’s enabling

a. His calling, John 6:44,65

b. His sealing

1) II Corinthians 1:22; 5:5

2) Ephesians 1:13-14; 4:30

c. His personal assurance

1) Romans 8:16-17

2) I John 5:7-13

B. The necessary believer’s covenantal response is

1. initial and continuing repentance and faith

a. Mark 1:15

b. John 1:12

c. Acts 3:16; 20:21

d. Romans 10:9-13

2. remembering that the goal of salvation is Christlikeness

a. Romans 8:28-29

b. Ephesians 1:4; 2:10; 4:13

3. remembering that assurance is confirmed by lifestyle

a. James

b. I John

4. remembering that assurance is confirmed by active faith and perseverance

a. Mark 13:13

b. I Corinthians 15:2

c. Hebrews 3:14; 4:14

d. II Peter 1:10

e. Jude vv. 20-21

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SPECIAL TOPIC: CHRISTIAN FREEDOM vs. CHRISTIAN RESPONSIBILITY

A. This chapter tries to balance the paradox of Christian freedom and responsibility. The literary unit runs through Acts 15:13.

B. The problem which precipitated this chapter was possibly the tension between Gentile and Jewish believers in the church of Rome. Before conversion the Jews tended to be legalistic and the pagans tended to be immoral. Remember, this chapter is addressed to sincere followers of Jesus. This chapter does not address carnal believers (cf. I Cor. 3:1). The highest motive is ascribed to both groups. There is danger in the extremes on both sides. This discussion is not a license for nit-picking legalism or flaunting liberality.

C. Believers must be careful not to make their theology or ethics the standard for all other believers (cf. II Cor. 10:12). Believers must walk in the light they have but understand that their theology is not automatically God’s theology. Believers are still affected by sin. We must encourage, exhort, and teach one another from the Scriptures, reason, and experience, but always in love. The more one knows the more one knows he does not know (cf. I Cor. 13:12)!

D. One’s attitude and motives before God are the real keys in evaluating his/her actions. Christians will stand before Christ to be judged on how they treated one another (cf. vv. 10,12 and II Cor. 5:10).

E. Martin Luther said, “A Christian man is a most free Lord of all, subject to none; the Christian man is a most dutiful servant of all, subject to all.” Biblical truth is often presented in a tension-filled paradox.

F. This difficult but crucial subject is dealt with in the entire literary unit of Romans 14:1-15:13 and also in I Corinthians 8-10 and Colossians 2:8-23.

G. However, it needs to be stated that pluralism among sincere believers is not a bad thing. Each believer has strengths and weaknesses. Each must walk in the light he/she has, always open to the Spirit and the Bible for more light. In this period of seeing through a glass darkly (I Cor. 13:8-13) one must walk in love (v. 15), and peace (vv. 17,19) for mutual edification.

H. The titles “stronger” and “weaker” which Paul gives to these groups prejudices them to us. This was certainly not Paul’s intent. Both groups were sincere believers. We are not to attempt to mold other Christians into ourselves! We accept one another in Christ!

I. The entire argument could be outlined as

1. accept one another because God accepts us in Christ (cf. 14:1,3; 15:7);

2. do not judge one another because Christ is our only Master and Judge (cf. 14:3-12);

3. love is more important than personal freedom (cf. 14:13-23);

4. follow Christ’s example and lay down your rights for others’ edification & good (cf. 15:1-13).

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SPECIAL TOPIC: CHRISTIAN GROWTH

Romans 5:3-4 Galatians 5:22-23 James 1:3-4 II Peter 1:5-7

Tribulation Causes Fruit of the Spirit Testing Produces Applying Diligence

* perseverance * love * endurance *moral excellence

* proven character * joy * maturity * knowledge

* hope (cf. v. 2) * peace 1. steadfastness * self-control

*patience 2. complete * perseverance

* kindness * godliness

* goodness * brotherly kindness

* faithfulness (philadelphia)

*gentleness * Christian love

* self-control (agapē)

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SPECIAL TOPIC: CHRISTIANITY IS CORPORATE

A. Paul’s plural metaphors

1. body

2. field

3. building

B. The term “saint” is always plural (except Phil. 4:21, but even there it is also corporate)

C. The Reformation emphasis of Martin Luther on the “priesthood of the believer” is not truly biblical. It is the priesthood of believers (cf. Exod. 19:6; I Pet. 2:5,9; Rev. 1:6).

D. Each believer is gifted for the common good (cf. I Cor. 12:7)

E. Only in cooperation can the people of God be effective. Ministry is corporate (cf. Eph. 4:11-12).

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SPECIAL TOPIC: CHURCH (EKKLESIA)

This Greek term, ekklesia, is from two words, “out of” and “called,” therefore, the term implies the divinely called-out ones. The early church took this word from secular use (cf. Acts 19:32,39,41) and because of the Septuagint’s use of this term for “congregation” of Israel (Qahal, BDB 874, cf. Num. 16:3; 20:4). They used it for themselves as a continuation of the OT people of God. They were the new Israel (cf. Rom. 2:28-29; Gal. 6:16; I Pet. 2:5,9; Rev. 1:6), the fulfillment of God’s worldwide mission (cf. Gen. 3:15; 12:3; Exod. 19:5-6; Matt. 28:18-20; Luke 24:47; Acts 1:8).

This term is used in several senses in the Gospels and Acts.

1. secular town meeting, Acts 19:32,39,41

2. universal people of God in Christ, Matt. 16:18 and Ephesians

3. a local congregation of believers in Christ, Matt. 18:17; Acts 5:11 (in these verses the church in Jerusalem)

4. the people of Israel collectively, Acts 7:38, in Stephen’s sermon

5. the people of God in a region, Acts 8:3 (Judah or Palestine)

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SPECIAL TOPIC: COINS IN USE IN PALESTINE IN JESUS’ DAY

I. Copper coins

A. cherma – little value (cf. John 2:15)

B. chalchos – little value (cf. Matt. 10:9; Mark 12:41)

C. assarion – a Roman copper coin worth about 1/16 of a dēnarius (cf. Matt. 10:29)

D. kodrantes – a Roman copper coin worth 1/64 of a dēnarius (cf. Matt. 5:26)

E. lepton – a Jewish copper coin worth about 1/128 of a dēnarius (cf. Mark 12:42; Luke 21:2)

D. quadrans/farthing – a Roman copper coin of little value

II. Silver coins

A. arguros (“silver coin”) – much more valuable than copper or bronze coins (cf. Matt. 10:9; 26:15)

B. dēnarius – a Roman silver coin worth a day’s labor (cf. Matt. 18:28; Mark 6:37)

C. drachmē – a Greek silver coin equivalent in value to a dēnarius (cf. Luke 15:9)

D. di-drachmon – a double drachmas equaled a Jewish ½ shekel (cf. Matt. 17:24)

E. statēr – a sliver coin worth about four dēnarii (cf. Matt. 17:27)

III. Gold coins – chrusos (“gold coins”) – most valuable coins (cf. Matt. 10:9)

IV. General terms for weights of metals

A. mnaa – Latin mina, a weight of metal equivalent to 100 dēnarii (cf. Luke 19:13)

B. talanton – a Greek unit of weight (cf. Matt. 18:24; 25:15,16,20,24,25,28)

1. silver worth 6,000 dēnarii

2. gold worth 180,000 dēnarii

C. sheqel – Jewish OT weight of silver (cf. Gen. 23:15; 37:28; Exod. 21:32)

1. pīm – 2/3 shekel

2. beka – ½ shekel

3. gerah – 1/20 shekel

Larger units

1. maneh – 50 shekels

2. kikkar – 3,000 shekels

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SPECIAL TOPIC: COMFORT

The following is taken from my commentary on II Cor. 1:4-11.

“‘comfort’ This term, paraklēsis, in its different forms, is used ten times in vv. 3-11. It is the key term throughout the entire passage and also in chapters 1-9, where it is used twenty-five times. The word means “to call alongside.” It was often used in a judicial sense of an advocate who rendered legal aid, comfort, and guidance.

In this context it is used in the sense of encouragement and consolation. A related term, paraklētos, is used of the Holy Spirit in John 14:16,26; 15:26; 16:7; and of Jesus in I John 2:1. In this context it is used of the Father.

The verb form of parakaleō is used in several senses.

A.the Septuagint

1. exhort, Deut. 3:28

2. comfort, Gen. 24:67; 37:35; Ps. 119:50 (in a Messianic sense in Isa. 40:1; 49:13; 51:3; 61:2)

3. have compassion, Deut. 32:36; Jdgs. 2:18; Ps. 135:14

4. console, Isa. 35:4

5. call, Exod. 15:13

B.Paul’s writings to Corinth

1. exhort, I Cor. 1:10; 4:16; 14:30-31; 16:15-16; II Cor. 2:8; 5:20; 6:1; 8:4,6; 10:1

2. comfort, cheer up, II Cor. 1:4,6; 2:7; 7:6,7,13; 13:11

3. have compassion, console, I Cor. 4:13

4. implore, entreat, request, I Cor. 16:12; II Cor. 9:5; 12:18 ”

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SPECIAL TOPIC: COMING ON THE CLOUDS

This phrase is an obvious reference to the Second Coming of Christ. This coming on the clouds was a very significant eschatological sign. It was used in three distinct ways in the OT.

1. to show God’s physical presence, the Shekinah cloud of Glory (cf. Exod. 13:21; 16:10; Num. 11:25)

2. to cover His Holiness so that man would not see Him and die (cf. Exod. 33:20; Isa. 6:5)

3. to transport deity (cf. Isa. 19:1)

In Daniel 7:13 clouds were used of the transportation of a divine human Messiah. This prophecy in Daniel is alluded to over 30 times in the NT. This same connection of the Messiah with the clouds of heaven can be seen in Matt. 24:30; Mark 13:26; Luke 21:27; 14:62; Acts 1:9,11 and I Thess. 4:17.

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SPECIAL TOPIC: CONFESSION

A. There are two forms of the same Greek root used for confession or profession, homolegeō and exomologe. The compound term James uses is from homo, the same; legō, to speak; and ex, out of. The basic meaning is to say the same thing, to agree with. The ex added to the idea of a public declaration.

B. The English translations of this word group are

1. praise

2. agree

3. declare

4. profess

5. confess

C. This word group had two seemingly opposite usages

1. to praise (God)

2. to admit sin

These may have developed from mankind’s sense of the holiness of God and its own sinfulness. To acknowledge one truth is to acknowledge both.

D. The NT usages of the word group are

1. to promise (cf. Matt. 14:7; Acts 7:17)

2. to agree or consent to something (cf. John 1:20; Luke 22:6; Acts 24:14; Heb. 11:13)

3. to praise (cf. Matt. 11:25; Luke 10:21; Rom. 14:11; 15:9)

4. to assent to

a. a person (cf. Matt. 10:32; Luke 12:8; John 9:22; 12:42; Rom. 10:9; Phil. 2:11; I John 2:23; Rev. 3:5)

b. a truth (cf. Acts 23:8; II Cor. 11:13; I John 4:2)

5. to make a public declaration of (legal sense developed into religious affirmation, cf. Acts 24:14; I Tim. 6:13)

a. without admission of guilt (cf. I Tim. 6:12; Heb. 10:23)

b. with an admission of guilt (cf. Matt. 3:6; Acts 19:18; Heb. 4:14; James 5:16; I John 1:9)

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SPECIAL TOPIC: CONSCIENCE

Paul uses the term “conscience” often in the Corinthian letters (cf. 4:4; 8:7, 10, 12; 10:25, 27, 28, 29; II Cor. 1:12; 4:2; 5:11). It refers to that moral inner sense of what is appropriate or inappropriate (cf. Acts 23:1). The conscience can be affected by our past lives, our poor choices, or by the Spirit of God. It is not a flawless guide, but it does determine the boundaries of individual faith. Therefore, to violate our conscience, even if it is in error or weak, is a major faith problem.

The believer’s conscience needs to be more and more formed by the Word of God and the Spirit of God (cf. I Tim. 3:9). God will judge believers by the light they have (i.e., weak or strong), but all of us need to be open to the Bible and the Spirit for more light and to be growing in the knowledge of the Lord Jesus Christ. See fuller note on “conscience” at II Cor. 10:25. See Special Topic: Weakness.

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SPECIAL TOPIC: THE CITY OF CORINTH

A. Winter shipping lanes around the southern most point of Greece (i.e., Cape Malea) were very dangerous. Therefore, a land route of the shortest possible length was crucial. The geographical location of Corinth on the four mile isthmus between the Gulf of Corinth (i.e., Adriatic Sea) and the Saronic Gulf (i.e., Aegean Sea) made the city a major commercial (i.e., shipping and trading center specializing in types of pottery and a special type of brass) and military center. In Paul’s day this was literally where the cultures of the East and West met.

B. Corinth was also a major cultural center of the Greco-Roman world because it hosted the bi-annual Isthmian Games which began in 581 b.c. (at the Temple of Poseidon). Only the Olympic Games in Athens, every four years, rivaled them in size and importance (Thucydides, Hist. 1.13.5).

C. In 146 b.c. Corinth was involved in a revolt (i.e., the Achaean League) against Rome and was destroyed by the Roman General Lucius Mummius and the population dispersed. Because of its economical and military importance it was rebuilt in either 46 or 48 b.c. by Julius Caesar. It became a Roman colony where Roman soldiers retired. It was a mimic of Rome in architecture and culture and the administrative center of the Roman (i.e., Senatorial) province of Achaia in 27 b.c. It became an Imperial Province in a.d. 15.

D. The acropolis of Old Corinth, rising more than 1880 feet above the plain, was the site of the temple to Aphrodite. To this temple were attached 1,000 prostitutes (Strabo, Geography, 8.6.20-22). To be called “a Corinthian” (i.e., Korinthiazesthai, coined by Aristophanes [450-385 b.c.]) was synonymous to loose, riotous living. This temple, as most of the city, was destroyed in an earthquake about 150 years before Paul arrived, as it was again in a.d. 77. It is uncertain if the fertility cult continued in Paul’s day. Since the Romans, in 146 b.c., destroyed the city and killed or enslaved all of its citizens, the Greek flavor of the city was superseded by its Roman colonial status (Pausanias, II.3.7).

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SPECIAL TOPIC: CORNERSTONE

I. OT Usages

A. The concept of a stone as a hard durable item which made a good foundation was used to describe YHWH (cf. Ps. 18:2).

B. It then developed into a Messianic title (cf. Gen. 49:24; Ps. 118:22; Isa. 28:16).

C. It came to represent a judgment from YHWH by the Messiah (cf. Isa. 8:14; Dan. 2:34-35,44-45).

D. This developed into a building metaphor.

1. a foundation stone, the first placed, which was secure and set the angles for the rest of the building, called “the cornerstone”

2. it could also refer to the final stone put in place, which holds the walls together (cf. Zech. 4:7; Eph. 2:20,21), called “the capstone,” from the Hebrew rush (i.e., head)

3. it could refer to the “key stone,” which is in the center of the doorway arch and holds the weight of the entire wall

II. NT Usages

A. Jesus quoted Psalm 118 several times in reference to Himself (cf. Matt. 21:41-46; Mark 12:10-11; Luke 20:17)

B. Paul uses Psalm 118 in connection with YHWH’s rejection of faithless, rebellious Israel (cf. Rom. 9:33)

C. Paul uses the concept of a “cornerstone” in Eph. 2:20-22 in reference to Christ

D. Peter uses this concept of Jesus in I Pet. 2:1-10. Jesus is the cornerstone and believers are the living stones (i.e., believers as temples, cf. I Cor. 6:19), built on Him (i.e., Jesus is the new Temple, cf. Mark 14:58; Matt. 12:6; John 2:19-20). The Jews rejected the very foundation of their hope when they rejected Jesus as Messiah.

III. Theological Statements

A. YHWH allowed David/Solomon to build a temple. He told them that if they kept the covenant He would bless them and be with them (cf. II Samuel 7), but if they did not the temple would be in ruins (cf. I Kgs. 9:1-9)!

B. Rabbinical Judaism focused on form and ritual and neglected the personal aspect of faith (cf. Jer. 31:31-34; Ezek. 36:22-38). God seeks a daily, personal, godly relationship with those created in His image (cf. Gen. 1:26-27). Luke 20:17-18 contains frightening words of judgment, as does Matt. 5:20, directed at Judaism.

C. Jesus used the concept of a temple to represent His physical body (cf. John 2:19-22). This continues and expands the concept of personal faith in Jesus as the Messiah is key to a relationship with YHWH (i.e., John 14:6; I John 5:10-12).

D. Salvation is meant to restore the damaged image of God in human beings (Gen. 1:26-27 and chapter 3) so that fellowship with God is possible. The goal of Christianity is Christlikeness now. Believers are to become living stones (i.e., little temples built on/patterned after Christ).

E. Jesus is the foundation of our faith and the capstone of our faith (i.e., the Alpha and Omega). Yet also the stone of stumbling and the rock of offense. To miss Him is to miss everything. There can be no middle ground here!

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SPECIAL TOPIC: COVENANT

The OT term berith (BDB 136), covenant, is not easy to define. There is no matching verb in Hebrew. All attempts to derive an etymological definition have proved unconvincing. However, the obvious centrality of the concept has forced scholars to examine the word usage to attempt to determine its functional meaning.

Covenant is the means by which the one true God deals with His human creation. The concept of covenant, treaty, or agreement is crucial in understanding the biblical revelation. The tension between God’s sovereignty and human free-will are clearly seen in the concept of covenant. Some covenants are based exclusively on God’s character and actions.

1. creation itself (cf. Genesis 1-2)

2. the call of Abraham (cf. Genesis 12)

3. the covenant with Abraham (cf. Genesis 15)

4. the preservation and promise to Noah (cf. Genesis 6-9)

However, the very nature of covenant demands a response.

1. by faith Adam must obey God and not eat of the tree in the midst of Eden

2. by faith Abraham must leave his family, follow God, and believe in future descendants

3. by faith Noah must build a huge boat far from water and gather the animals

4. by faith Moses brought the Israelites out of Egypt to Mt. Sinai and received specific guidelines for religious and social life with promises of blessings and cursings (cf. Deuteronomy 27-28)

This same tension involving God’s relationship to humanity is addressed in the “new covenant.” The tension can be clearly seen in comparing Ezekiel 18 with Ezek. 36:27-37 (YHWH’s action). Is the covenant based on God’s gracious actions or mandated human response? This is the burning issue of the Old Covenant and the New. The goals of both are the same: (1) the restoration of fellowship with YHWH lost in Genesis 3 and (2) the establishment of a righteous people who reflect God’s character.

The new covenant of Jer. 31:31-34 solves the tension by removing human performance as the means of attaining acceptance. God’s law becomes an internal desire instead of an external law code. The goal of a godly, righteous people remains the same, but the methodology changes. Fallen mankind proved themselves inadequate to be God’s reflected image. The problem was not God’s covenant, but human sinfulness and weakness (cf. Romans 7; Galatians 3).

The same tension between OT unconditional and conditional covenants remains in the NT. Salvation is absolutely free in the finished work of Jesus Christ, but it requires repentance and faith (both initially and continually). It is both a legal pronouncement and a call to Christlikeness, an indicative statement of acceptance and an imperative to holiness! Believers are not saved by their performance, but unto obedience (cf. Eph. 2:8-10). Godly living becomes the evidence of salvation, not the means of salvation. However, eternal life has observable characteristics! This tension is clearly seen in Hebrews.

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SPECIAL TOPIC: CURSE (ANATHEMA)

There are several words in Hebrew for “curse.” Herem was used of something given to God (cf. LXX as anathema, Lev. 27:28), usually for destruction (cf. Deut. 7:26; Josh. 6:17-18; 17:12). It was a term used in the concept of “holy war.” God said to destroy the Canaanites and Jericho was the first opportunity, the “first fruits.”

In the NT anathema and its related forms were used in several different senses:

1. as a gift or offering to God (cf. Luke 21:5)

2. as a death oath (cf. Acts 23:14)

3. to curse and swear (cf. Mark 14:71)

4. a curse formula related to Jesus (cf. I Cor. 12:3)

5. a giving of someone or something to the judgment or destruction of God (cf. Rom. 9:3; I Cor. 16:22; Gal. 1:8-9).

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SPECIAL TOPIC: THE DATE OF THE EXODUS

There have been two scholarly opinions on the date of the Exodus.

A. from I Kings 6:1, which says, “480 years from the Exodus to the building of Solomon’s Temple”

1. Solomon began to reign in 970 b.c. This is figured by using the battle of Qarqar (853 b.c.) As a certain starting date.

2. The Temple was built in his fourth year (965 b.c.), and the Exodus occurred about 1445/6 b.c.

3. This would make it occur in the 18^th Egyptian Dynasty.

a. The Pharaoh of the oppression would be Thutmose III (1490-1436 b.c.).

b. The Pharaoh of the Exodus would be Amenhotep II (1436-1407 b.c.).

(1) Some believe evidence from Jericho based on the fact that no diplomatic correspondence occurred between Jericho and Egypt during the reign of Amenhotep III (1413-1377 b.c.).

(2) The Amarna texts record diplomatic correspondence written on ostraca about the Habiru overrunning the land of Canaan in the reign of Amenhotep III. Therefore, the Exodus occurred in the reign of Amenhotep II.

(3) The period of the Judges is not long enough if the 13^th century is the date of the Exodus.

4. The possible problems with these dates.

a. The Septuagint (LXX) has 440 years, not 480.

b. It is possible that 480 years is representative of twelve generations of forty years each, therefore, a figurative number.

c. There are twelve generations of priests from Aaron to Solomon (cf. I Chr. 6), then twelve from Solomon to the Second Temple. The Jews, like the Greeks, reckoned a generation as forty years. So, there is a 480 year period back and forward (symbolic use of numbers, cf. Bimson’s Redating the Exodus and Conquest).

5. There are three other texts that mention dates.

a. Genesis 15:13,16 (cf. Acts 7:6), 400 years of bondage

b. Exodus 12:40-41 (cf. Gal. 3:17)

(1) MT - 430 years of sojourn in Egypt

(2) LXX - 215 years of sojourn in Egypt

c. Judges 11:26 - 300 years between Jephthah’s day and the conquest (supports 1445 date)

d. Acts 13:19 - exodus, wanderings, and conquest - 450 years

6. The author of Kings used specific historical references and did not round numbers (Edwin Thiele, A Chronology of the Hebrew Kings, pp. 83-85

B. The tentative evidence from archaeology seems to point toward a date of 1290 b.c. or the nineteenth Egyptian Dynasty.

1. Joseph was able to visit his father and Pharaoh in this same day. The first native Pharaoh who began to move the capital of Egypt from Thebes back to the Nile Delta, to a place called Avaris/Zoan/Tanis, which was the old Hyksos capital, was Seti I (1309-1290 b.c. ). He would be the Pharaoh of the oppression.

a. This seems to fit two pieces of information about the Hyksos reign of Egypt.

(1) a stele has been found from the time of Ramesis II that commemorates the founding of Avaris four hundred years earlier (1700's b.c. by the Hyksos)

(2) The prophecy of Gen. 15:13 speaks of a 400 year oppression.

b. This implies that Joseph’s rise to power was under a Hyksos (Semitic) Pharaoh. The new Egyptian dynasty is referred to in Exod. 1:8.

2. The Hyksos, an Egyptian word meaning “rulers of foreign lands,” who were a group of non-Egyptian Semitic rulers, controlled Egypt during the 15^th and 16^th Dynasties (1720-1570 b.c.). Some want to relate them to Joseph’s rise to power. If we subtract the 430 years of Exod. 12:40 from 1720 b.c., we get a date of about 1290 b.c.

3. Seti I’s son was Rameses II (1290-1224 b.c.). This name is mentioned as one of the store cities built by the Hebrew slaves, Exod. 1:11. Also this same district in Egypt near Goshen is called Ramesis, Gen. 47:11. Avaris/Zoan/Tanis was known as “House of Rameses” from 1300-1100 b.c.

4. Thutmoses III was known as a great builder, as was Rameses II.

5. Rameses II had forty-seven daughters living in separate palaces.

6. Archaeology has shown that most of the large walled cities of Canaan (Hazor, Debir, Lachish) were destroyed and rapidly rebuilt around 1250 b.c. In allowing for a thirty-eight year wilderness wandering period, this fits a date of 1290 b.c.

7. Archaeology has found a reference to the Israelis being in southern Canaan on a memorial stele of Rameses’ successor, Merneptah (1224-1214 b.c., cf. The Stele of Merneptah, dated 1220 b.c.).

8. Edom and Moab seem to have attained strong national identity in the late 1300's b.c. These countries were not organized in the fifteenth century (Glueck).

9. The book, Redating the Exodus and Conquest by John J. Bimson, published by the University of Sheffield, 1978, argues against all of the archaeological evidence for an early date.

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SPECIAL TOPIC: WHERE ARE THE DEAD?

I. Old Testament

A. All humans go to Sheol (etymology uncertain, BDB 1066), which is a way of referring to death or the grave, mostly in Wisdom Literature and Isaiah. In the OT it was a shadowy, conscious, but joyless existence (cf. Job 10:21-22; 38:17; Ps. 107:10,14).

B. Sheol characterized

1. associated with God’s judgment (fire), Deut. 32:22

2. associated with punishment even before Judgment Day, Ps. 18:4-5

3. associated with abaddon (destruction), in which God is also preent, Job 26:6; Ps. 139:8; Amos 9:2

4. associated with “the Pit” (grave), Ps.16:10; Isa. 14:15; Ezek. 31:15-17

5. wicked descend alive into Sheol, Num. 16:30,33; Ps. 55:15

6. personified often as an animal with a large mouth, Num. 16:30; Isa. 5:14; 14:9; Hab. 2:5

7. people there called Repha’im, Isa. 14:9-11)

II. New Testament

A. The Hebrew Sheol is translated by the Greek Hades (the unseen world)

B. Hades characterized

1. refers to death, Matt. 16:18

2. linked to death, Rev. 1:18; 6:8; 20:13-14

3. often analogous to the place of permanent punishment (Gehenna), Matt. 11:23 (OT quote); Luke 10:15; 16:23-24

4. often analogous to the grave, Luke 16:23

C. Possibly divided (rabbis)

1. righteous part called paradise (really another name for heaven, cf. II Cor. 12:4; Rev. 2:7), Luke 23:43

2. wicked part called Tartarus, II Peter 2:4, where it is a holding place for evil angels (cf. Genesis 6; I Enoch)

D. Gehenna

1. Reflects the OT phrase, “the valley of the sons of Hinnom,” (south of Jerusalem). It was the place where the Phoenician fire god, Molech (BDB 574), was worshiped by child sacrifice (cf. II Kgs. 16:3; 21:6; II Chr. 28:3; 33:6), which was forbidden in Lev. 18:21; 20:2-5.

2. Jeremiah changed it from a place of pagan worship into a site of YHWH’s judgment (cf. Jer. 7:32; 19:6-7). It became the place of fiery, eternal judgment in I Enoch 90:26-27 and Sib. 1:103.

3. The Jews of Jesus’ day were so appalled by their ancestors’ participation in pagan worship by child sacrifice, that they turned this area into the garbage dump for Jerusalem. Many of Jesus’ metaphors for eternal judgment came from this landfill (fire, smoke, worms, stench, cf. Mark 9:44,46). The term Gehenna is used only by Jesus (except in James 3:6).

4. Jesus’ usage of Gehenna

a. fire, Matt. 5:22; 18:9; Mark 9:43

b. permanent, Mark 9:48 (Matt. 25:46)

c. place of destruction (both soul and body), Matt. 10:28

d. paralleled to Sheol, Matt. 5:29-30; 18:9

e. characterizes the wicked as “son of hell,” Matt. 23:15

f. result of judicial sentence, Matt. 23:33; Luke 12:5

g. the concept of Gehenna is parallel to the second death (cf. Rev. 2:11; 20:6,14) or the lake of fire (cf. Matt. 13:42,50; Rev. 19:20; 20:10,14-15; 21:8). It is possible the lake of fire becomes the permanent dwelling place of humans (from Sheol) and evil angels (from Tartarus, II Pet. 2:4; Jude v. 6 or the abyss, cf. Luke 8:31; Rev. 9:1-11; 20:1,3).

h. it was not designed for humans, but for Satan and his angels, Matt. 25:41

E. It is possible, because of the overlap of Sheol, Hades, and Gehenna that

1. originally all humans went to Sheol/Hades

2. their experience there (good/bad) is exacerbated after Judgment Day, but the place of the wicked remains the same (this is why the KJV translated hades (grave) as gehenna (hell).

3. the only NT text to mention torment before Judgment is the parable of Luke 16:19-31 (Lazarus and the Rich Man). Sheol is also described as a place of punishment now (cf. Deut. 32:22; Ps. 18:1-5). However, one cannot establish a doctrine on a parable.

III. Intermediate state between death and resurrection

A. The NT does not teach the “immortality of the soul,” which is one of several ancient views of the after life.

1. human souls exist before their physical life

2. human souls are eternal before and after physical death

3. often the physical body is seen as a prison and death as release back to pre-existent state

B. The NT hints at a disembodied state between death and resurrection

1. Jesus speaks of a division between body and soul, Matt. 10:28

2. Abraham may have a body now, Mark 12:26-27; Luke 16:23

3. Moses and Elijah have a physical body at the transfiguration, Matthew 17

4. Paul asserts that at the Second Coming the souls with Christ will get their new bodies first, I Thess. 4:13-18

5. Paul asserts that believers get their new spiritual bodies on Resurrection Day, I Cor. 15:23,52

6. Paul asserts that believers do not go to Hades, but at death are with Jesus, II Cor. 5:6,8; Phil. 1:23. Jesus overcame death and took the righteous to heaven with Him, I Pet. 3:18-22.

IV. Heaven

A. This term is used in three senses in the Bible.

1. the atmosphere above the earth, Gen. 1:1,8; Isa. 42:5; 45:18

2. the starry heavens, Gen. 1:14; Deut. 10:14; Ps. 148:4; Heb. 4:14; 7:26

3. the place of God’s throne, Deut. 10:14; I Kgs. 8:27; Ps. 148:4; Eph. 4:10; Heb. 9:24 (third heaven, II Cor. 12:2)

B. The Bible does not reveal much about the afterlife, probably because fallen humans have no way or capacity to understand (cf. I Cor. 2:9).

C. Heaven is both a place (cf. John 14:2-3) and a person (cf. II Cor. 5:6,8). Heaven may be a restored Garden of Eden (Genesis 1-2; Revelation 21-22). The earth will be cleansed and restored (cf. Acts 3:21; Rom. 8:21; II Pet. 3:10). The image of God (Gen. 1:26-27) is restored in Christ. Now the intimate fellowship of the Garden of Eden is possible again.

However, this may be metaphorical (heaven as a huge, cubed city of Rev. 21:9-27) and not literal. I Corinthians 15 describes the difference between the physical body and the spiritual body as the seed to the mature plant. Again, I Cor. 2:9 (a quote from Isa. 64:4 and 65:17) is a great promise and hope! I know that when we see Him we will be like Him (cf. I John 3:2).

V. Helpful resources

A. William Hendriksen, The Bible On the Life Hereafter

B. Maurice Rawlings, Beyond Death’s Door

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SPECIAL TOPIC: DEGREES OF REWARDS AND PUNISHMENT

A. Appropriate and inappropriate response to God is based on knowledge. The less knowledge one has, the less responsible one is. The opposite is also true.

B. Knowledge of God comes in two basic ways

1. creation (cf. Psalm 19; Romans 1-2)

2. Scripture (cf. Psalm 19, 119; the gospel)

C. OT evidence

1. rewards

a. Gen. 15:1 (usually associated with earthly reward, land and sons)

b. Deuteronomy 27-28 (covenant obedience brings blessing)

c. Dan. 12:3

2. punishment

a. Deuteronomy 27-28 (covenant disobedience brings cursing)

3. The OT pattern of reward for personal, covenantal righteousness is modified because of human sin. This modification is seen in Job and Psalm 73. The NT changes the focus from this world to the next (cf. the Sermon on the Mount, Matthew 5-7).

D. NT evidence

1. rewards (beyond salvation)

a. Mark 9:41

b. Matt. 5:12,46; 6:1-4,5-6,6-18; 10:41-42; 16:27; 25:14-23

c. Luke 6:23,35; 19:11-19,25-26

2. punishment

a. Mark 12:38-40

b. Luke 10:12; 12:47-48; 19:20-24; 20:47

c. Matthew 5:22,29,30; 7:19; 10:15,28; 11:22-24; 13:49-50; 18:6; 25:14-30

d. James 3:1

E. For me the only analogy that makes sense is from the opera. I do not attend opera presentations so I do not understand them. The more I knew of the difficulty and intricateness of the plot, music, and dance, the more I would appreciate the performance. I believe heaven will fill our cups, but I think our earthly service determines the size of the cup.

Therefore, knowledge and a response to that knowledge results in rewards and punishments (cf. Matt. 16:7; I Cor. 3:8,14; 9:17,18; Gal. 6:7; II Tim. 4:14). There is a spiritual principle—we reap what we sow! Some sow more and reap more (cf. Matt. 13:8,23).

F. “The crown of righteousness” is ours in the finished work of Jesus Christ (cf. II Tim. 4:8), but notice that “the crown of life” is connected to perseverance under trial (cf. James 1:12; Rev. 2:10; 3:10-11). The “crown of glory” for Christian leaders is connected to their lifestyle (cf. I Pet. 5:1-4). Paul knows he has an imperishable crown, but he exercises extreme self-control (cf. I Cor. 9:24-27).

The mystery of the Christian life is that the gospel is absolutely free in the finished work of Christ, but as we must respond to God’s offer in Christ, we must also respond to God’s empowerment for Christian living. The Christian life is as supernatural as is salvation, yet we must receive it and hold on to it. The free-but-cost-everything paradox is the mystery of rewards and sowing/reaping.

We are not saved by good works, but for good works (cf. Eph. 2:8-10). Good works are the evidence that we have met Him (cf. Matthew 7). Human merit in the area of salvation leads to destruction, but godly living which results from salvation is rewarded.

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SPECIAL TOPIC: THE DEMONIC (UNCLEAN SPIRIT)

A. Ancient peoples were animists. They attributed human personality traits to forces of nature, animals, and natural objects. Life was explained through the interaction of these spiritual entities with mankind.

B. This personification became polytheism (many gods). Usually the demonic (genii) were lesser gods or demigods (good or evil) that impacted individual human lives.

1. Mesopotamia, chaos and conflict

2. Egypt, order and function

3. Canaan, see W. F. Albright’s Archaeology and the Religion of Israel, Fifth Edition, pp. 67-92

C. The OT does not dwell on or develop the subject of lesser gods, angels, or the demonic, probably because of its strict monotheism (cf. Exod. 8:10; 9:14; 15:11; Deut. 4:35,39; 6:4; 33:26; Ps. 35:10; 71:19; 86:6; Isa. 46:9; Jer. 10:6-7; Mic. 7:18). It does mention the false gods of the pagan nations (Shedim, cf. Deut. 32:17; Ps. 106:37) and it does name some of them.

1. Se'im (satyrs or hairy demons, cf. Lev. 17:7; II Chr. 11:15)

2. Lilith (female, a seducing demon, cf. Isa. 34:14)

3. Mavet (Hebrew term for death used for Canaanite god of the underworld, Mot, cf. Isa. 28:15,18; Jer. 9:21; and possibly Deut. 28:22)

4. Resheph (plague, cf. Deut. 33:29; Ps. 78:48; Hab. 3:5)

5. Dever (pestilence, cf. Ps. 91:5-6; Hab. 3:5)

6. Az'azel (name uncertain, but possibly a desert demon or place name, cf. Lev. 16:8,10,26)

(These examples are taken from Encyclopaedia Judaica, vol. 5, p. 1523.)

However, there is no dualism or angelic independence from YHWH in the OT. Satan is a servant of YHWH (cf. Job 1-3; Zech. 3), not an independent, self-directing enemy (cf. A. B. Davidson, A Theology of the Old Testament, pp. 300-306).

D. Judaism developed during the Babylonian exile (586-538 b.c.). It was theologically influenced by the Persian personified dualism of Zoroastrianism, a good high god called Mazda or Ormazd and an evil opponent called Ahriman. This allowed within post-exilic Judaism the personified dualism between YHWH and His angels and Satan and his angels or demons.

Judaism’s theology of personified evil is explained and well documented in Alfred Edersheim’s The Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah, vol. 2, appendix XIII (pp. 749-863) and XVI (pp. 770-776). Judaism personified evil in three ways.

1. Satan or Sammael

2. the evil intent (yetzer hara) within mankind

3. the Death Angel

Edersheim characterizes these as (1) the Accuser; (2) the Tempter; and (3) the Punisher (vol. 2, p. 756). There is a marked theological difference between post-exilic Judaism and the NT presentation and explanation of evil.

E. The NT, especially the Gospels, asserts the existence and opposition of evil spiritual beings to humanity and to YHWH (in Judaism Satan was an enemy to mankind, but not to God). They oppose God’s will, rule, and kingdom.

Jesus confronted and expelled these demonic beings, also called (1) unclean spirits (cf. Luke 4:36; 6:18) or (2) evil spirits (cf. Luke 7:21; 8:2), from human beings. Jesus clearly made a distinction between illness (physical and mental) and the demonic. He demonstrated His power and spiritual insight by recognizing and exorcizing these evil spirits. They often recognized Him and attempted to address Him, but Jesus rejected their testimony, demanded their silence, and expelled them. Exorcisms are a sign of the defeat of Satan’s kingdom.

There is a surprising lack of information in the NT Apostolic letters on this subject. Exorcism is never listed as a spiritual gift, nor is a methodology or procedure for it given for future generations of ministers or believers.

F. Evil is real; evil is personal; evil is present. Neither its origin nor its purpose is revealed. The Bible asserts its reality and aggressively opposes its influence. There is no ultimate dualism in reality. God is in total control; evil is defeated and judged and will be removed from creation.

G. God’s people must resist evil (cf. James 4:7). They cannot be controlled by it (cf. I John 5:18), but they can be tempted and their witness and influence damaged (cf. Eph. 6:10-18). Evil is a revealed part of the Christian’s world-view. Modern Christians have no right to redefine evil (the demythologizing of Rudolf Baltmann); depersonalize evil (the social structures of Paul Tillich), nor attempt to explain it completely in psychological terms (Sigmund Freud). Its influence is pervasive, but defeated. Believers need to walk in the victory of Christ!

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SPECIAL TOPIC: DESTROY, RUIN, CORRUPT (PHTHEIRŌ)

The basic meaning of this term phtheirō is destroy, ruin, corrupt, or spoil. It can be used for

1. financial ruin (possibly II Cor. 7:2)

2. physical destruction (cf. I Cor. 3:17a)

3. moral corruption (cf. Rom. 1:23; 8:21; I Cor. 15:33,42,50; Gal. 6:8; Rev. 19:2)

4. sexual seduction (cf. II Cor. 11:3)

5. eternal destruction (cf. II Pet. 2:12,19)

6. perishing traditions of men (cf. Col. 2:22; I Cor. 3:17b)

Often this term is used in the same context as its negated opposite (cf. Rom. 1:23; I Cor. 9:25; 15:50,53). Notice the parallel contrasts between our earthly physical bodies and our heavenly eternal bodies.

1. corruptible vs. incorruptible, I Cor. 15:42,50

2. dishonor vs. glory, I Cor. 15:43

3. weakness vs. power, I Cor. 15:43

4. natural body vs. spiritual body, I Cor. 15:44

5. first Adam vs. last Adam, I Cor. 15:45

6. image of the earthly vs. image of the heavenly, I Cor. 15:49

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SPECIAL TOPIC: DESTRUCTION (APOLLUMI)

This term has a wide semantic field, which has caused great confusion in relation to the theological concepts of eternal judgment vs. annihilation. The basic literal meaning is from apo plus ollumi, to ruin, to destroy.

The problem comes in this term’s figurative usages. This can be clearly seen in Louw and Nida’s Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament, Based On Semantic Domains, vol. 2, p. 30. It lists several meanings of this term

1. destroy (e.g., Matt. 10:28; Luke 5:37; John 10:10; 17:12; Acts 5:37; Rom. 9:22 from vol. 1, p. 232)

2. fail to obtain (e.g., Matt. 10:42, vol. 1, p. 566)

3. lose (e.g., Luke 15:8, vol. 1, p. 566)

4. unaware of location (e.g., Luke 15:4, vol. 1, p. 330)

5. die (e.g., Matt. 10:39, vol. 1, p. 266)

Gerhard Kittel, Theological Dictionary of the New Testament, vol. 1, p. 394, tries to delineate the different usages by listing four meanings:

1. to destroy or kill (e.g., Matt. 2:13; 27:20; Mark 3:6; 9:22; Luke 6:9; I Cor. 1:19)

2. to lose or suffer loss from (e.g., Mark 9:41; Luke 15:4,8)

3. to perish (e.g., Matt. 26:52; Mark 4:38; Luke 11:51; 13:3,5,33; 15:17; John 6:12,27; I Cor. 10:9-10)

4. to be lost (e.g., Matt. 5:29-30; Mark 2:22; Luke15: 4,6,24,32; 21:18; Acts 27:34)

Kittel then says, “in general we may say that #2 and #4 underlie statements relating to this world as in the Synoptics, whereas #1 and #3 underlie those relating to the next world, as in Paul and John” (p. 394).

Herein lies the confusion. The term has such a wide semantic usage that different NT authors use it in a variety of ways. I like Robert B. Girdlestone, Synonyms of the Old Testament, pp. 275-277. He relates the term to those humans who are morally destroyed and waiting eternal separation from God versus those humans who know Christ and have eternal life in Him. The latter group is “saved,” while the former group is destroyed.

I personally do not think that this term denotes annihilation (cf. E. Fudge, The Fire That Consumes). The term “eternal” is used of both eternal punishment and eternal life in Matt. 25:46. To depreciate one is to depreciate both!

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SPECIAL TOPIC: ANSWERS TO THE DISCIPLES’ TWO QUESTIONS OF MATTHEW 24:3

(by F. F. Bruce in Answers to Questions, p 57).

A. A warning against being misled, by false prophets or great calamities, into thinking that this is the end

1. Matt. 24:4-8

2. Mark 13:5-8

3. Luke 21:8-11

B. A prediction of persecution and promise of help

1. Matt. 24:9-14

2. Mark 13:9-13

3. Luke 21:12-19

C. An answer to the first question, relating to the destruction of Jerusalem and the scattering of its inhabitants

1. Matt. 24:15-28

2. Mark 13:14-23

3. Luke 21:20-24

D. An answer to the second question, describing the coming of Christ

1. Matt. 24:29-31

2. Mark 13:24-27

3. Luke 21:20-24

E. An exhortation to watchfulness in the situation leading up to the fall of Jerusalem

1. Matt. 24:32-35

2. Mark 13:28-31

3. Luke 21:29-33

F. An exhortation to watchfulness for the coming of Christ

1. Matt. 24:36-44

2. Mark 13:32-37

3. Luke 21:34-36

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SPECIAL TOPIC: THE DIVISIONS OF THE HEBREW BIBLE

I. The Law (Torah)

A. Genesis

B. Exodus

C. Leviticus

D. Numbers

E. Deuteronomy

II. The Prophets (Nevi’im) A.Former Prophets

1. Joshua

2. Judges

3. I & II Samuel

4. I & II Kings

B. Latter Prophets

1. Isaiah

2. Jeremiah

3. Ezekiel

4. The Twelve

a. Hosea e. Jonah i. Zephaniah

b. Joel f. Micah j. Haggai

c. Amos g. Nahum k. Zechariah

d. Obadiah h. Habakkuk l. Malachi

III. The Writings (Kethubim)

A. Festival Books (megelloth)

1. Ruth (read at Pentecost)

2. Song of Songs (read at Passover)

3. Ecclesiastes (read at Feast of Booths)

4. Lamentations (read on the day to commemorate the fall of Jerusalem)

5. Esther (read at Purim)

B. Wisdom Books

1. Job

2. Psalms

3. ProverbsC.Historical Books

1. Ezra

2. Nehemiah

3. Chronicles

4. Daniel

IV. The Writings section was still being debated by Jewish leaders (i.e., Jamnia) in the first century as to which books should be included.

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SPECIAL TOPIC: USE OF THE WORD “DOOR” IN THE NT

The NT uses “door” in several senses.

1. literal

a. of homes, Matt. 6:6; Mark 1:33; 2:2; 11:7, upper room, John 20:19,26

b. of the temple, Acts 3:2; 21:30

c. of a prison, Acts 5:19,23; 12:6; 16:26-27

d. of a tomb, Matt. 27:60; 28:2; Mark 15:46; 16:3

e. of a sheepfold, John 10:1,2

f. of a courtyard, John 18:16; Acts 12:13

2. metaphorical

a. nearness of time, Matt. 24:33; Mark 13:29; Acts 5:9; James 5:9

b. restriction on entrance to true faith, Matt. 7:13-14; Luke 13:24; Rev. 3:20

c. opportunity of saving faith lost, Matt. 25:10; Luke 13:25; Rev. 3:7

d. opportunity of saving faith, Acts 14:27; Rev. 3:7

e. opportunity for ministry, I Cor. 16:9; II Cor.2:12; Col. 4:3; Rev. 3:8

f. revelation, Rev. 4:1; 19:11

3. title for Jesus, John 10:7, 9

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SPECIAL TOPIC: EDIFY

This term oikodomeō and its other forms are used often by Paul. Literally it means “to build a house” (cf. Matt. 7:24), but it came to be used metaphorically for:

1. Christ’s body, the church, I Cor. 3:9; Eph. 2:21; 4:16

2. building up

a. weak brothers, Rom. 15:1

b. neighbors, Rom. 15:2

c. one another, Eph. 4:29; I Thess. 5:11

d. the saints for ministry, Eph. 4:11

3. we build up or edify by

a. love, I Cor. 8:1; Eph. 4:16

b. limiting personal freedoms, I Cor. 10:23-24

c. avoiding speculations, I Tim. 1:4

d. limiting speakers in worship services (singers, teachers, prophets, tongue speakers, and interpreters), I Cor. 14:3-4,12

4. all things should edify

a. Paul’s authority, II Cor. 10:8; 12:19; 13:10

b. summary statements in Rom. 14:19 and I Cor. 14:26

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SPECIAL TOPIC: EFFECTIVE PRAYER

A. Related to one’s personal relationship with the Triune God

1. Related to the Father’s will

a. Matt. 6:10

b. I John 3:22

c. I John 5:14-15

2. Abiding in Jesus

John 15:7

3. Praying in Jesus’ name

a. John 14:13,14

b. John 15:16

c. John 16:23-24

4. Praying in the Spirit

a. Eph. 6:18

b. Jude 20

B. Related to one’s personal motives

1. Not wavering

a. Matt. 21:22

b. James 1:6-7

2. Asking amiss

James 4:3

3. Asking selfishly

James 4:2-3

C. Related to one’s personal choices

1. Perseverance

a. Luke 18:1-8

b. Colossians 4:2

c. James 5:16

2. Discord at home

I Peter 3:7

3. Sin

a. Psalm 66:18

b. Isaiah 59:1-2

c. Isaiah 64:7

All prayer is answered, but not all prayer is effective. Prayer is a two-way relationship. The worst thing God could do is grant believers’ inappropriate requests. See Special Topic: Intercessory Prayer at Col. 4:3. See Special Topic: Intercessory Prayer at I John 5:14.

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SPECIAL TOPIC: ELECTION

Election is a wonderful doctrine. However, it is not a call to favoritism, but a call to be a channel, a tool or means of others’ redemption! In the Old Testament the term was used primarily for service; in the New Testament it is used primarily for salvation which issues in service. The Bible never reconciles the seeming contradiction between God’s sovereignty and mankind’s free will, but affirms them both! A good example of the biblical tension would be Romans 9 on God’s sovereign choice and Romans 10 on mankind’s necessary response (cf. 10:11,13).

The key to this theological tension may be found in Eph. 1:4. Jesus is God’s elect man and all are potentially elect in Him (Karl Barth). Jesus is God’s “yes” to fallen mankind’s need (Karl Barth). Ephesians 1:4 also helps clarify the issue by asserting that the goal of predestination is not heaven, but holiness (Christlikeness). We are often attracted to the benefits of the gospel and ignore the responsibilities! God’s call (election) is for time as well as eternity!

Doctrines come in relation to other truths, not as single, unrelated truths. A good analogy would be a constellation versus a single star. God presents truth in eastern, not western, genres. We must not remove the tension caused by dialectical (paradoxical) pairs of doctrinal truths (God as transcendent versus God as immanent. Ex.: Security vs. perseverance; Jesus as equal with the Father vs. Jesus as subservient to the Father; Christian freedom vs. Christian responsibility to a covenant partner; etc.).

The theological concept of “covenant” unites the sovereignty of God (who always takes the initiative and sets the agenda) with a mandatory initial and continuing repentant, faith response from mankind (cf. Mark 1:15; Acts 3:16,19; 20:21). Be careful of proof-texting one side of the paradox and depreciating the other! Be careful of asserting only your favorite doctrine or system of theology!

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SPECIAL TOPIC: Election/Predestination and the Need for a Theological Balance

The key to this theological tension may be found in Ephesians 1:4. Jesus is God’s elect man and all are potentially elect in Him (Karl Barth). Jesus is God’s “yes” to fallen mankind’s need (Karl Barth). Ephesians 1:4 also helps clarify the issue by asserting that the goal of predestination is not heaven, but holiness (Christlikeness). We are often attracted to the benefits of the gospel and ignore the responsibilities! God’s call (election) is for time as well as eternity!

1. Predestination vs. human free will

2. Security of the believers vs. the need for perseverance

3. Original sin vs. volitional sin

4. Sinlessness (perfectionism) vs. sinning less

5. Initial instantaneous justification and sanctification vs. progressive sanctification

6. Christian freedom vs. Christian responsibility

7. God’s transcendence vs. God’s immanence

8. God as ultimately unknowable vs. God as knowable in Scripture

9. The Kingdom of God as present vs. future consummation

10. Repentance as a gift of God vs. repentance as a necessary human covenantal response

11. Jesus as divine vs. Jesus as human

12. Jesus is equal to the Father vs. Jesus as subservient to the Father

The theological concept of “covenant” unites the sovereignty of God (who always takes the initiative and sets the agenda) with a mandatory initial and continuing repentant, faith response from humans. Be careful of proof-texting one side of the paradox and depreciating the other! Be careful of asserting only your favorite doctrine or system of theology!

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SPECIAL TOPIC: END OR FULL (TELOS)

This culmination of spiritual things is a recurrent theme in Hebrews.

1. telos end, fulfillment (3:6,14; 6:8,11)

2. teleiōo

a. (Jesus) to perfect the author of their salvation through suffering (cf. 2:10)

b. (Jesus) having been made perfect through suffering (cf. 5:8-9)

c. the Law made nothing perfect (cf. 7:19)

d. a Son, made perfect forever (cf. 7:28)

e. make the worshiper perfect (cf. 9:9)

f. make perfect those who draw near (cf. 10:1)

g. He has perfected for all time those who are sanctified (cf.10:14)

h. apart from us they should not be make perfect (cf. 11:40)

i. the spirit of righteous men made perfect (cf. 12:23)

3. teleios, the mature (cf. 5:14)

4. teleios, more perfect tabernacle (cf. 9:11)

5. teleiotēs, press on to maturity (cf. 6:1)

6. teleiōsis, if perfection was through the Levitical priesthood (cf. 7:11)

7. teleiōtēs, the author and perfecter of the faith (cf. 12:2)

Jesus brings the maturity and completion that the Mosaic Covenant could never do!

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SPECIAL TOPIC: ESCHATOLOGY–Why do Christians Have So Many Dogmatic Interpretations of Revelation?

(This is taken from Dr. Utley’s commentary on Revelation, vol. 12, 1998.)

Through the years of my study of eschatology I have learned that most Christians do not have or want a developed, systematized, end-time chronology. There are some Christians who focus or major on this area of Christianity for theological, psychological, or denominational reasons. These Christians seem to become obsessed with how it will all end, and somehow miss the urgency of the gospel! Believers cannot affect God’s eschatological (end-time) agenda, but they can participate in the gospel mandate (cf. Matt. 28:19-20; Luke 24:47; Acts 1:8). Most believers affirm a Second Coming of Christ and an end-time culmination of the promises of God. The interpretive problems arising from how to understand this temporal culmination come from several biblical paradoxes.

1. the tension between Old Covenant prophetic models and New Covenant apostolic models

2. the tension between the Bible’s monotheism (one God for all) and the election of Israel (a special people)

3. the tension between the conditional aspect of biblical covenants and promises (“if. . .then”) and the unconditional faithfulness of God to fallen mankind’s redemption

4. the tension between Near Eastern literary genres and modern western literary models

5. the tension between the Kingdom of God as present, yet future.

6. the tension between belief in the imminent return of Christ and the belief that some events must happen first.

Let us discuss these tensions one at a time.

FIRST TENSION (OT racial, national, and geographical categories vs. all believers over all the world)

The OT prophets predict a restoration of a Jewish kingdom in Palestine centered in Jerusalem where all the nations of the earth gather to praise and serve a Davidic ruler, but Jesus nor the NT Apostles ever focus on this agenda. Is not the OT inspired (cf. Matt. 5:17-19)? Have the NT authors omitted crucial end-time events?

There are several sources of information about the end of the world.

1. OT prophets (Isaiah, Micah, Malachi)

2. OT apocalyptic writers (cf. Ezek. 37-39; Dan. 7-12; Zech.)

3. intertestamental, non-canonical Jewish apocalyptic writers (like I Enoch, which is alluded to in Jude)

4. Jesus Himself (cf. Matt. 24; Mark 13; Luke 21)

5. the writings of Paul (cf. I Corinthians 15; II Cor. 5; I Thessalonians 4-5; II Thessalonians 2)

6. the writings of John (I John and Revelation)

Do these all clearly teach an end-time agenda (events, chronology, persons)? If not, why? Are they not all inspired (except the Jewish intertestamental writings)?

The Spirit revealed truths to the OT writers in terms and categories they could understand. However, through progressive revelation the Spirit has expanded these OT eschatological concepts to a universal scope (“the mystery of Christ,” cf. Eph. 2:11-3:13. See Special Topic at 10:7). Here are some relevant examples:

1. The city of Jerusalem in the OT is used as a metaphor of the people of God (Zion), but is projected into the NT as a term expressing God’s acceptance of all repentant, believing humans (the new Jerusalem of Revelation 21-22). The theological expansion of a literal, physical city into the new people of God (believing Jews and Gentiles) is foreshadowed in God’s promise to redeem fallen

mankind in Gen. 3:15, before there even were any Jews or a Jewish capital city. Even Abraham’s call (cf. Gen. 12:1-3) involved the Gentiles (cf. Gen. 12:3; Exod. 19:5).

2. In the OT the enemies of God’s people are the surrounding nations of the Ancient Near East, but in the NT they have been expanded to all unbelieving, anti-God, Satanically-inspired people. The battle has moved from a geographical, regional conflict to a worldwide, cosmic conflict (cf. Colossians).

3. The promise of a land which is so integral in the OT (the Patriarchal promises of Genesis, cf. Gen. 12:7; 13:15; 15:7,15; 17:8) has now become the whole earth. New Jerusalem comes down to a recreated earth, not the Near East only or exclusively (cf. Revelation 21-22).

4. Some other examples of OT prophetic concepts being expanded are

a. the seed of Abraham is now the spiritually circumcised (cf. Rom. 2:28-29)

b. the covenant people now include Gentiles (cf. Hos. 1:10; 2:23, quoted in Rom. 9:24-26; also Lev. 26:12; Exod. 29:45, quoted in II Cor. 6:16-18 and Exod. 19:5; Deut. 14:2, quoted in Titus 2:14)

c. the temple is now Jesus (cf. Matt. 26:61; 27:40; John 2:19-21) and through Him the local church (cf. I Cor. 3:16) or the individual believer (cf. I Cor. 6:19)

d. even Israel and its characteristic descriptive OT phrases now refer to the whole people of God (i.e.,“Israel,” cf. Rom. 9:6; Gal. 6:16, i.e.,“kingdom of priests,” cf. I Pet. 2:5, 9-10; Rev. 1:6)

The prophetic model has been fulfilled, expanded, and is now more inclusive. Jesus and the Apostolic writers do not present the end-time in the same way as the OT prophets (cf. Martin Wyngaarden, The Future of The Kingdom in Prophecy and Fulfillment). Modern interpreters who try to make the OT model literal or normative twist the Revelation into a very Jewish book and force meaning into atomized, ambiguous phrases of Jesus and Paul! The NT writers do not negate the OT prophets, but show their ultimate universal implication. There is no organized, logical system to Jesus’ or Paul’s eschatology. Their purpose is primarily redemptive or pastoral.

However, even within the NT there is tension. There is no clear systemization of eschatological events. In many ways the Revelation surprisingly uses OT allusions in describing the end instead of the teachings of Jesus (cf. Matthew 24; Mark 13)! It follows the literary genre initiated by Ezekiel, Daniel, and Zechariah, but developed during the intertestamental period (Jewish apocalyptic literature). This may have been John’s way of linking the Old and New Covenants. It shows the age-old pattern of human rebellion and God’s commitment to redemption! But it must be noted that although Revelation uses OT language, persons, and events, it reinterprets them in light of first century Rome (cf. Rev. 1:7).

SECOND TENSION (monotheism vs. an elect people)

The biblical emphasis is on one personal, spiritual, creator-redeemer, God (cf. Exod. 8:10; Isa. 44:24; 45:5-7,14,18,21-22; 46:9; Jer. 10:6-7). The OT’s uniqueness in its own day was its monotheism. All of the surrounding nations were polytheists. The oneness of God is the heart of OT revelation (cf. Deut. 6:4). Creation is a stage for the purpose of fellowship between God and mankind, made in His image and likeness (cf. Gen.1:26-27). However, mankind rebelled, sinning against God’s love, leadership, and purpose (cf. Genesis 3). God’s love and purpose was so strong and sure that He promised to redeem fallen humanity (cf. Gen. 3:15)!

The tension arises when God chooses to use one man, one family, one nation to reach the rest of mankind. God’s election of Abraham and the Jews as a kingdom of priests (cf. Exod. 19:4-6) caused pride instead of service, exclusion instead of inclusion. God’s call of Abraham involved the intentional blessing of all mankind (cf. Gen. 12:3). It must be remembered and emphasized that OT election was for service, not salvation. All Israel was never right with God, never eternally saved based solely on her birthright (cf. John 8:31-59; Matt. 3:9), but by personal faith and obedience (cf. Gen. 15:6, quoted in Romans 4). Israel lost her mission (the church is now a kingdom of priests, cf. 1:6; II Pet.2:5,9), turned mandate into privilege, service into a special standing! God chose one to choose all!

THIRD TENSION (conditional covenants vs. unconditional covenants)

There is a theological tension or paradox between conditional and unconditional covenants. It is surely true that God’s redemptive purpose/plan is unconditional (cf. Gen. 15:12-21). However, the mandated human response is always conditional!

The “if. . .then” pattern appears in both OT and NT. God is faithful; mankind is unfaithful. This tension has caused much confusion. Interpreters have tended to focus on only one “horn of the dilemma,” God’s faithfulness or human effort, God’s sovereignty or mankind’s free will. Both are biblical and necessary.

This relates to eschatology, to God’s OT promises to Israel. If God promises it, that settles it! God is bound to His promises; His reputation is involved (cf. Ezek. 36:22-38). The unconditional and conditional covenants meet in Christ (cf. Isaiah 53), not Israel! God’s ultimate faithfulness lies in the redemption of all who will repent and believe, not in who was your father/mother! Christ, not Israel, is the key to all of God’s covenants and promises. If there is a theological parenthesis in the Bible, it is not the Church, but Israel (cf. Acts 7 and Galatians 3).

The world mission of gospel proclamation has passed to the Church (cf. Matt. 28:19-20; Luke 24:47; Acts 1:8). It is still a conditional covenant! This is not to imply that God has totally rejected the Jews (cf. Rom. 9-11). There may be a place and purpose for end-time, believing Israel (cf. Zech. 12:10).

FOURTH TENSION (Near Eastern literary models vs. western models).

Genre is a critical element in correctly interpreting the Bible. The Church developed in a western (Greek) cultural setting. Eastern literature is much more figurative, metaphorical, and symbolic than modern, western culture’s literary models. It focuses on people, encounters, and events more than succinct propositional truths. Christians have been guilty of using their history and literary models to interpret biblical prophecy (both OT and NT). Each generation and geographical entity has used its culture, history, and literalness to interpret Revelation. Every one of them has been wrong! It is arrogant to think that modern western culture is the focus of biblical prophecy!

The genre in which the original, inspired author chooses to write is a literary contract with the reader. The book of Revelation is not historical narrative. It is a combination of letter (chapters 1-3), prophecy, and mostly apocalyptic literature. It is as wrong to make the Bible say more than was intended by the original author as it is to make it say less than what he intended! Interpreters’ arrogance and dogmatism are even more inappropriate in a book like Revelation.

The Church has never agreed on a proper interpretation of Revelation. My concern is to hear and deal with the whole Bible, not some selected part(s). The Bible’s eastern mind-set presents truth in tension-filled pairs. Our western trend toward propositional truth is not invalid, but unbalanced! I think it is possible to remove at least some of the impasse in interpreting Revelation by noting its changing purpose to successive generations of believers. It is obvious to most interpreters that Revelation must be interpreted in light of its own day and its genre. An historical approach to Revelation must deal with what the first readers would have, and could have, understood. In many ways modern interpreters have lost the meaning of many of the symbols of the book. Revelation’s initial main thrust was to encourage persecuted believers. It showed God’s control of history (as did the OT prophets); it affirmed that history is moving toward an appointed terminus, judgment or blessing (as did the OT prophets). It affirmed in first century Jewish apocalyptic terms God’s love, presence, power, and sovereignty!

It functions in these same theological ways to every generation of believers. It depicts the cosmic struggle of good and evil. The first century details may have been lost to us, but not the powerful, comforting truths. When modern, western interpreters try to force the details of Revelation into their contemporary history, the pattern of false interpretations continues!

It is quite possible that the details of the book may become strikingly literal again (as did the OT in relation to the birth, life, and death of Christ) for the last generation of believers as they face the onslaught of an anti-God leader (cf. II Thessalonians 2) and culture. No one can know these literal fulfillments of the Revelation until the words of Jesus (cf. Matt. 24; Mark.13; and Luke 21) and Paul (cf. I Corinthians 15; I Thessalonians 4-5; and II Thessalonians 2) also become historically evident. Guessing, speculation, and dogmatism are all inappropriate. Apocalyptic literature allows this flexibility. Thank God for images and symbols that surpass historical narrative! God is in control; He reigns; He comes!

Most modern commentaries miss the point of the genre! Modern western interpreters often seek a clear, logical system of theology rather than being fair with an ambiguous, symbolic, dramatic genre of Jewish apocalyptic literature. This truth is expressed well by Ralph P. Martin in his article, “Approaches to New Testament Exegesis,” in the book New Testament Interpretation, edited by I. Howard Marshall:

“Unless we recognize the dramatic quality of this writing and recall the way in which language is being used as a vehicle to express religious truth, we shall grievously err in our understanding of the Apocalypse, and mistakenly try to interpret its visions as though it were a book of literal prose and concerned to describe events of empirical and datable history. To attempt the latter course is to run into all manner of problems of interpretation. More seriously it leads to a distortion of the essential meaning of apocalyptic and so misses the great value of this part of the New Testament as a dramatic assertion in mythopoetic language of the sovereignty of God in Christ and the paradox of his rule which blends might and love (cf. 5:5,6; the Lion is the Lamb)” (p. 235).

W. Randolph Tate in his book Biblical Interpretations said:

“No other genre of the Bible has been so fervently read with such depressing results as apocalypse, especially the books of Daniel and Revelation. This genre had suffered from a disastrous history of misinterpretation due to a fundamental misunderstanding of its literary forms, structure, and purpose. Because of its very claim to reveal what is shortly to happen, apocalypse has been viewed as a road map into and a blueprint of the future. The tragic flaw in this view is the assumption that the books’ frame of reference is the reader’s contemporary age rather than the author’s. This misguided approach to apocalypse (particularly Revelation) treats the work as if it were a cryptogram by which contemporary events can be used to interpret the symbol of the text. . .First, the interpreter must recognize that apocalyptic communicates its messages through symbolism. To interpret a symbol literally when it is metaphoric is simply to misinterpret. The issue is not whether the events in apocalyptic are historical. The events may be historical; they may have really happened, or might happen, but the author presents events and communicates meaning through images and archetypes” (p. 137).

From Dictionary of Biblical Imagery, edited by Ryken, Wilhost and Longman III:

“Today’s readers are often puzzled and frustrated by this genre. The unexpected imagery and out-of-this-world experiences seem bizarre and out of sync with most of Scripture. Taking this literature at face value leaves many readers scrambling to determine ‘what will happen when,’ thus missing the intent of the apocalyptic message” (p. 35).

FIFTH TENSION (the Kingdom of God as present yet future)

The kingdom of God is present, yet future. This theological paradox becomes focused at the point of eschatology. If one expects a literal fulfillment of all OT prophecies to Israel then the Kingdom becomes mostly a restoration of Israel to a geographical locality and a theological pre-eminence! This would necessitate that the Church is secretly raptured out at chapter 5 and the remaining chapters relate to Israel (but note Rev. 22:16).

However, if the focus is on the kingdom being inaugurated by the promised OT Messiah, then it is present with Christ’s first coming, and then the focus becomes the incarnation, life, teachings, death, and resurrection of Christ. The theological emphasis is on a current salvation. The kingdom has come, the OT is fulfilled in Christ’s offer of salvation to all, not His millennial reign over some!

It is surely true that the Bible speaks of both of Christ’s comings, but where is the emphasis to be placed? It seems to me that most OT prophecies focus on the first coming, the establishment of the Messianic kingdom (cf. Daniel 2). In many ways this is analogous to the eternal reign of God (cf. Daniel 7). In the OT the focus is on the eternal reign of God, yet the mechanism for that reign’s manifestation is the ministry of the Messiah (cf. I Cor. 15:26-27). It is not a question of which is true; both are true, but where is the emphasis? It must be said that some interpreters become so focused on the millennial reign of the Messiah (cf. Revelation 20) that they have missed the biblical focus on the eternal reign of the Father. Christ’s reign is a preliminary event. As the two comings of Christ were not obvious in the OT, neither is a temporal reign of the Messiah!

The key to Jesus’ preaching and teaching is the kingdom of God. It is both present (in salvation and service), and future (in pervasiveness and power). Revelation, if it focuses on a Messianic millennial reign (cf. Revelation 20), is preliminary, not ultimate (cf. Revelation 21-22). It is not obvious from the OT that a temporal reign is necessary; as a matter of fact, the Messianic reign of Daniel 7 is eternal, not millennial.

SIXTH TENSION (imminent return of Christ vs. the delayed Parousia)

Most believers have been taught that Jesus is coming soon, suddenly, and unexpectedly (cf. Matt. 10:23; 24:27,34,44; Mark 9:1; 13:30; Rev. 1:1,3; 2:16; 3:11; 22:7,10,12,20). But every expectant generation of believers so far has been wrong! The soonness (immediacy) of Jesus’ return is a powerful promised hope of every generation, but a reality to only one (and that one a persecuted one). Believers must live as if He were coming tomorrow, but plan and implement the Great Commission (cf. Matt. 28:19-20) if He tarries.

Some passages in the Gospels (cf. Mark 13:10; Luke 17:2; 18:8) and I and II Thessalonians are based on a delayed Second Coming (Parousia). There are some historical events that must happen first:

1. world-wide evangelization (cf. Matt. 24:14; Mark 13:10)

2. the revelation of “the man of Sin” (cf. Matt. 24:15; II Thessalonians 2; Revelation 13)

3. the great persecution (cf. Matt. 24:21,24; Revelation 13)

There is a purposeful ambiguity (cf. Matt. 24:42-51; Mark 13:32-36)! Live every day as if it were your last but plan and train for future ministry!

CONSISTENCY AND BALANCE

It must be said that the different schools of modern eschatological interpretation all contain half truths. They explain and interpret well some texts. The problem lies in consistency and balance. Often there is a set of presuppositions which use the biblical text to fill in the pre-set theological skeleton. The Bible does not reveal a logical, chronological, systematic eschatology. It is like a family album. The pictures are true, but not always in order, in context, in a logical sequence. Some of the pictures have fallen out of the album and later generations of family members do not know exactly how to put them back. The key to proper interpretation of Revelation is the intent of the original author as revealed in his choice of literary genre. Most interpreters try to carry their exegetical tools and procedures from other genres of the NT into their interpretations of Revelation. They focus on the OT instead of allowing the teachings of Jesus and Paul to set the theological structure and let Revelation act as illustrative.

I must admit that I approach this commentary with some fear and trepidation, not because of the curse of Rev. 22:18-19, but because of the level of controversy the interpretation of this book has caused and continues to cause among God’s people. I love God’s revelation. It is true when all men are liars (cf. Rom. 3:4)! Please use this commentary as an attempt to be thought provoking and not definitive, as a sign post and not a road map, as a “what if,” not a “thus says the Lord.” I have come face to face with my own inadequacies, biases, and theological agenda. I have also seen those of other interpreters. It almost seems that people find in Revelation what they expect to find. The genre lends itself to abuse! However, it is in the Bible for a purpose. Its placement as the concluding “word” is not by accident. It has a message from God to His children of each and every generation. God wants us to understand! Let us join hands, not form camps; let us affirm what is clear and central, not all that may be, might be, could be true. God help us all!

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SPECIAL TOPIC: ETERNAL

Robert B. Girdlestone, in his book Synonyms of the Old Testament, has an interesting comment on the word “eternal”:

“The adjective aiōnios is used more than forty times in the N.T. with respect to eternal life, which is regarded partly as a present gift, partly as a promise for the future. It is also applied to God’s endless existence in Rom. 16.26; to the endless efficacy of Christ’s atonement in Heb. 9.12, 13.20; and to past ages in Rom. 16.25, 2 Tim. 1,9, Titus 1.2.

This word is used with reference to eternal fire, Matt. 18.8,25. 41, Jude 7; eternal punishment, Matt. 25.46; eternal judgment or condemnation, Mark 3.29, Heb. 6.2; eternal destruction, 2 Thess. 1.9. The word in these passages implies finality, and apparently signifies that when these judgments shall be inflicted, the time of probation, change, or the chance of retrieving one’s fortune, will have gone by absolutely and for ever. We understand very little about the future, about the relation of human life to the rest of existence, and about the moral weight of unbelief, as viewed in the light of eternity. If, on the one hand, it is wrong to add to God’s word, on the other we must not take away from it; and if we stagger under the doctrine of eternal punishment as it is set forth in Scripture, we must be content to wait, cleaving to the Gospel of God’s love in Christ, while acknowledging that there is a dark background which we are unable to comprehend” (pp. 318-319).

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SPECIAL TOPIC: NEW TESTAMENT EVIDENCE FOR ONE’S SALVATION

It is based on the New Covenant (cf. Jer. 31:31-34; Ezek. 36:22-38) in Jesus:

1. The character of the Father (cf. John 3:16), the work of the Son (cf. II Cor. 5:21), and the ministry of the Spirit (cf. Rom. 8:14-16) not on human performance, not wages due for obedience, not just a creed

2. It is a gift (cf. Rom. 3:24; 6:23; Eph. 2:5,8-9)

3. It is a new life, a new world-view (cf. James and I John)

4. It is knowledge (the gospel), fellowship (faith in and with Jesus), and a new lifestyle (Spirit-led Christlikeness) all three, not just any one by itself

5. See the tests of true salvation at Contextual Insights to I John 2:3-3:3, C.

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SPECIAL TOPIC: NOTES ON EXODUS 20

EXODUS 20:13, MURDER

I. CONTEXT

A. It needs to be remembered that even the commands that seem to be of a social nature are really religious. God’s sovereignty over creation and redemption are shadowed in these commands. The command not to murder is, in proper focus, a word about the image of God in every human being and God’s care and concern for human life.

B. It needs to be remembered that each command reflects the community of faith. The prohibition on taking a life in an illegal manner is primarily and originally focused with the believing community. Its implications are as wide as humanity!

II. WORD STUDY OF SIGNIFICANT TERMS

A. “Murder”

1. This is a rare term (rasah) for taking a life, used only 46 times in the OT. There are two other much more common terms.

a. Harag, used 165 times

b. Hemit, used 201 times

2. The term (Rasah) seems to have an original limited meaning and an expanded meaning.

a. Originally it related to taking the life of a covenant partner in a legal, premeditated way, often associated with “the kinsman redeemer” or “go’el.” This usage involved premeditation but in a sense of legal revenge (cf. Num. 35:30-34; Lev. 24:13-23). In

reality the Lex Talionis, “eye for eye,” (cf. Gen. 9:5-6) was a way to limit revenge. Later, the cities of refuge (Deut. 4:41; Josh. 20:3) were established so that a covenant member who accidently or passionately killed another member of the community could flee the wrath of the victim’s family.

b. Later the term came to refer to the motive or attitude behind the taking of a life. The concept of “intentionality” becomes uppermost! (cf. Exod. 21:12-14; Num. 35:11,22; Deut. 28:24).

c. This distinction becomes very significant in this command. It seems in context to refer only to others within the covenant community. It is related to the kinsman redeemer, or

blood revenge. However, the term is used in later passages which reflect the Decalogue, Hosea 4:2 and Jeremiah 7:9, to refer to a murderer. This word relates not only to the law but to the motive. It expands from neighbor to fellow human being.

3. This term certainly does not relate to our modern ethical issue of capital punishment or war. The Jews never had a problem with community execution or holy war (or, for that matter, unholy war!).

4. The best translation for our modern culture would be “premeditated murder.”

III. CONTEXTUAL INSIGHTS

A. The sixth, seventh, and eighth commands are made up of only two Hebrew words. They are very short and to the point.

B. Life, like all of life, is related to God. How we treat others reflects our thoughts about God

IV. NEW TESTAMENT PARALLELS

A. Jesus

1. His expansion of this commandment (cf. Matt. 5:21-26) gives us the proper orientation for our modern discussion about how to apply this text to our day.

2. Jesus obviously moved the Decalogue from the realm of actions into the realm of motives. We are what we think! “As a man thinks in his heart, so is he.” The thought life is much more relevant and significant than we normally give it credit.

B. John

1. I John. 3:15, this same concept of hate being considered murder is stated.

2. The Greek terms used in Matthew 5:21ff and I John 3:15 are different but the meaning is essentially the same.

3. Note the positive aspect in I John 4:19-21.

V. APPLICATION TRUTHS

A. Even though an unintentional murder can escape the blood avenger by fleeing to a city of refuge (cf. Num. 35; Josh. 20), he has to pay the penalty of confinement in that city until the death of the High Priest. The consequences of his act still remain!

B. Although this verse does not directly relate to suicide, as the ancients probably never thought of this event, the text still gives a spiritual principle concerning the sanctity of human life and God’s sovereignty and purpose for human life made in His image. This text speaks a strong word to our day in this area!

C. This text does not, however, speak a decisive word to the modern question of: (1) capital punishment or (2) war. For Israel, these were not evil things in themselves. The Israelites were involved in both of these acts. Still, the principle of the significance of life made in God’s image and under His control is an important truth in this area.

D. This text does speak a needed word about the dignity and sanctity of human life! We in the believing community are stewards, not only of our own actions, but of our society. The gift of life is both individual and corporate.

We are responsible for the physical, social, and psychological abuse of our own bodies as we are the physical, social, and psychological abuse of others in our community. This is especially true in a culture like ours where we are allowed to speak to and, thereby, change the system. We are our brothers’ keeper!

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EXODUS 20:14, ADULTERY

I. CONTEXT

B. The Deuteronomic parallel shows the appropriateness of adopting this ancient truth to our culture.

C. As respect for parents was seen as a key to a stable society, so too, is this command.

D. This command also implies God’s ownership and control of our sexual and family lives.

E. This command seems to have been based on Genesis 2:24 as command number 4 was based on Genesis 2:1-3.

II. WORD STUDY

A.The major term in this text is “adultery.” It is crucial that one understands this term in light of ancient Hebrew culture.

2. This possibility explains the reason for the emphasis on marital status because it relates to the importance of inheritance rights which were involved in God’s promise of “the land.” Every 50 years (Jubilee) all land was to revert to the original tribal owners.

3. Adultery was culturally condemned before the Mosaic legislation (cf. Gen. 12:10ff; 26:7ff; 39:9).

4. Adultery was seen as a sin against:

a. Neighbor – Exodus 20:14; Deuteronomy 5:18

b. Marriage – Leviticus 18:20

c. God – Genesis 20:1-13; 26:7-11

5. It was punishable by death for both parties:

a. Leviticus 20:10

b. Deuteronomy 22:22-24

c. Ezekiel 16:40 (metaphor)

d. Strict warnings are found in Proverbs 1-9

III. RELATION TO NT

A. Jesus used Leviticus 19:18 as a summary of the Old Revelation (cf. Luke 10:27). This confirms that the Ten Commandments are related to our treatment of others.

B. Jesus intensifies the commands in Matthew 5:28. He places the emphasis on motive rather than action. The Jews saw the mind as the seed-bed of the soul. What one thought was what one really was (Pro. 23:7). This makes the Ten Words almost impossible to keep—that is the purpose! (cf. Gal. 2:15-3:29).

IV. MODERN APPLICATION

B. Marriage stability and loyalty, like respect for parents, is a major pillar of societal strength and longevity.

C. It needs to be emphasized that human sexuality is a gift from God. It was His idea and will for man. The guidelines are not meant to thwart man’s freedom or joy but to give some godly guidelines for fallen man. The bounds are revealed for our long-term benefit and happiness. Although man has abused sexuality, as he has all of God’s gifts, it is still a powerful drive within humankind which must be under God’s control and guidance.

D. Sex must be guarded so that the sacredness of the human person (female or male) is respected because they are made in God’s image. Our fallen focus on “me” is all too obvious in this area.

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EXODUS 20:15, STEAL

I. GENERAL INFORMATION

A. Like all other regulation in the Decalog, our faith, love, and respect for God must be seen in the sacred and secular aspects of our daily lives. It is an abomination to God to claim to know Him and then exploit our covenant partner (cf. I John 4:20-21; 2:7-11).

B. This command is meant to help maintain the fellowship of the covenant community. The quality of this spiritual fellowship will attract a confused and seeking world to our God which is the purpose of Scripture.

C. As other commandments have focused on God’s ownership of all of life, so too, this one! We are stewards, not owners. Our fallen drive toward possessions, without cost, is behind this prohibition (cf. Ps. 50:10-12).

II. WORD AND PHRASE STUDY

A. This is the third command in the second half of the Decalog which is made up of only two words in Hebrew.

B. The object of the prohibition is absent. This is usually supported by:

1. The context of the two previous commands relating to capital offenses.

2. The presence of applicable parallel passages both immediate (Exod. 21:16)and remote (Deut. 24:7). Also see Genesis 37.

C. However, the short form is also defensible

1. It is recorded for us by inspiration

2. It widens the scope of the injunction

3. There is also a parallel passage in the immediate context which relates to theft—Exodus 22:1ff.

4. Jesus apparently quotes this passage in reference to stealing (cf. Matt. 19:18).

D. Theft is also dealt with in the other ancient Law Codes but usually the penalty is death, mutilation, or 30 times restitution.

E. There are some significant parallel passages which define and explain this truth:

1. Leviticus 19:1-18—“You shall be holy, for I the Lord your God am holy”

a. Our lifestyle must reflect the family characteristics of our Father and our God (cf. v. 18).

b. Our faith must impact our lives daily, both in positive actions and negative prohibition, both informed by proper motives (cf. v. 17).

c. Compassion for the ostracized and needy, vv. 9-10, 13, is as significant as refusal to rip off our neighbors, v. 11.

2. Amos 8:4-7–God hates exploitations!

3. Micah 6:6-8–God wants proper motives in all of our actions. Why we don’t steal is the issue!

4. Exodus 22:1ff–Often the missing truth in our modern discussion of robbery is restitution! Sin always costs!

III. APPLICATION TRUTHS

A. Joy Davidman, C. S. Lewis’ wife, has written a delightful book on the Decalog. She translates this command “Thou shalt not try to get something for nothing.” This assuredly widens the scope

beyond possessions. She also says that “property is neither sin nor inalienable right, but a loan, a trust from God.”

B. Theft, like all other sins of the fallen heart, are dealt with by a new heart, Eph. 4:28. It is amazing how the old nature of “take” turns into the new nature of “share!”

C. Our respect for God is clearly seen in our respect for other covenant partners! This truth overshadows the Decalog.

D. Modern man steals in many ways!

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

1. How does modern man practice stealing?

2. How is restitution related to repentance?

3. How does this verse relate to capitalism’s view of property?

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EXODUS 20:17, COVET

I. INTRODUCTION

A. It is possible to see the relationship between the last five commandments as follows:

1. Number 6, 7, and 8 prohibit the injury of a covenant partner in an overt action.

2. Number 9 prohibits the injury of a covenant partner in speech.

3. Number 10 prohibits the injury of a covenant partner in thought.

B. It is true that the act of coveting disrupts the person who is coveting, not the object, the neighbor. However, it is possible that this commandment expects that the thoughts will proceed to actions.

C. Many see this commandment as a unique concept found only in the ancient Law code of Israel and which is absent in the other Law codes of the Ancient Near East. This new concept would be the prohibition of thought. It is true that Israel perceived the thought life to be the origin of evil deeds (cf. Pro. 23:7; James 1:14-15). Yet, this verse seems to relate to thoughts which issue in actions.

Several passages use the term “covet” in connection with a resulting action (cf. Deut. 7:25; Josh. 7:21; Micah 2:2).

D. If it is true that emphasis is placed on that which is listed first and last, the true significance of this command is seen. Exclusive worship of God is first, but our attitudes and motives toward the things of this world affect our true devotion to God. This twin emphasis is also seen in Jesus’ Sermon on the Mount, Matt. 6:33—“But seek first His kingdom and His righteousness; and all these things (cf. vv. 19-32) shall be added to you.”

II. WORD AND PHRASE STUDY

A. Exodus 20:17 and Deuteronomy 5:21, although basically the same, have several significant differences:

1. The wife is included in the larger concept of “house” or a man’s property in Exodus 20 while she is placed in a separate, seemingly priority, category in Deuteronomy 5.

2. The passage in Exodus 20 has the Hebrew term “covet” which means “desire to acquire,” but Deuteronomy 5 has a second term, “desire” as well as “covet.” “Covet” speaks of desire which is connected to an action to acquire the object of the desire but “desire” seems to focus on the attitude alone.

3. Also, Exodus 20, written to the children of Israel during their wilderness wandering period, has no mention of “field” in the list of possessions while Deuteronomy 5 is restating the same commands for a settled society in the Promised Land.

B. The term “covet” is a neutral term. It can refer to desiring good things (cf. Ps. 19:10; I Cor. 12:31).

C. Improper desire is the root cause of the fall of Satan, Adam and Eve and all of us. Paul stressed his personal struggle with coveting in Romans 7:7-8. Coveting is basically a discontentment and lack of trust in God’s care and provision.

D. Several NT passages relate to coveting:

1. Man’s problem is discontentment and greed (cf. Luke 12:15; I Tim. 6:8-10).

2. Coveting is included in Jesus’ list of defiling sins (cf. Mark 7:17-23; I Cor. 5:10; Eph. 5:5; Col. 3:5).

III. APPLICATION TRUTHS

A. The answer to lustful greed and discontentment is:

1. Love – Rom. 13:8-10

2. Contentment – Heb. 13:5; Phil. 4:11-13 (and sharing, Phil. 4:14)

B. The command says “stop” but only Christ gave us the means to stop! In Him we can control our thought life to some degree.

C. God knows our hearts and minds

1. I Chronicles 28:9

2. Proverbs 20:27

3. Psalm 139:1,23

4. Jeremiah 17:10

5. Romans 8:27

6. Revelation 2:23

D. Things are not evil, but when they become priority they become sin. Things are not ultimate or eternal; people made in God’s image are! Coveting affects the Covenant Community in insidious and destructive ways!

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

1. What is coveting?

2. How does modern man covet?

3. Are our thoughts sin?

4. Why are thoughts so significant in the Christian life?

5. Why is the commandment in Exodus 20:17 somewhat different from the one in Deuteronomy 5:21?

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SPECIAL TOPIC: EXORCISM

Exorcisms were common in Jesus’ day, but Jesus’ methods were radically different. His exorcisms were a sign of the New Age. The rabbis used magic formulas (see Alfred Edersheim, the Life and Times of Jesus, The Messiah, vol. 2, Appendix XIII, pp. 748-763; XVI, pp. 770-776), but Jesus used His own authority. There is so much confusion and bad information circulating today about exorcism and the demonic. Part of this problem is that the NT does not discuss these issues. As a pastor I wish I had more information on this subject. Here are some books I trust.

1. Christian Counseling and the Occult, Kurt E. Koch

2. Demons in the World Today, Merrill F. Unger

3. Biblical Demonology, Merrill F. Unger

4. Principalities and Powers, John Warwick Montgomery

5. Christ and the Powers, Hendrik Berkhof

6. Three Crucial Questions About Spiritual Warfare by Clinton Anton

It surprises me that exorcism is not listed as one of the spiritual gifts and that the subject is not addressed in the Apostolic letters. I believe in a biblical world view which includes the spiritual realm (i.e., good and evil), present and active in the physical realm (i.e., Job 1-2; Daniel 10; Eph. 6:10-18). However, God has chosen not to reveal the specifics. As believers we have all the information we need to live godly, productive lives for Him! But some subjects are not revealed or developed.

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SPECIAL TOPIC: FAITH (PISTIS [noun], PISTEUŌ, [verb], PISTOS [adjective])

B. Its etymology

1. The term “faith” in the OT meant loyalty, fidelity, or trustworthiness and was a description of God’s nature, not ours.

2. It came from a Hebrew term (emun, emunah, BDB 53), which meant “to be sure or stable.” Saving faith is mental assent (set of truths), moral living (a lifestyle), and primarily a relational (welcoming of a person) and volitional commitment (a decision) to that person.

C. Its OT usage

It must be emphasized that Abraham’s faith was not in a future Messiah, but in God’s promise that he would have a child and descendants (cf. Gen. 12:2; 15:2-5; 17:4-8; 18:14). Abraham responded to this promise by trusting in God. He still had doubts and problems about this promise, which took thirteen years to be fulfilled. His imperfect faith, however, was accepted by God. God is willing to work with flawed human beings who respond to Him and His promises in faith, even if it is the size of a mustard seed (cf. Matt. 17:20).

D. Its NT usage

The term “believed” is from the Greek term (pisteuō). which can also be translated “believe,” “faith,” or “trust.” For example, the noun does not occur in the Gospel of John, but the verb is used often. In John 2:23-25 there is uncertainty as to the genuineness of the crowd’s commitment to Jesus of Nazareth as the Messiah. Other examples of this superficial use of the term “believe”

are in John 8:31-59 and Acts 8:13, 18-24. True biblical faith is more than an initial response. It must be followed by a process of discipleship (cf. Matt. 13:20-22,31-32).

E. Its use with prepositions

1. eis means “into.” This unique construction emphasizes believers putting their trust/faith in Jesus

a. into His name (John 1:12; 2:23; 3:18; I John 5:13)

b. into Him (John 2:11; 3:15,18; 4:39; 6:40; 7:5,31,39,48; 8:30; 9:36; 10:42; 11:45,48; 17:37,42; Matt. 18:6; Acts 10:43; Phil. 1:29; I Pet. 1:8)

c. into Me (John 6:35; 7:38; 11:25,26; 12:44,46; 14:1,12; 16:9; 17:20)

d. into the Son (John 3:36; 9:35; I John 5:10)

e. into Jesus (John 12:11; Acts 19:4; Gal. 2:16)

f. into Light (John 12:36)

g. into God (John 14:1)

2. en means “in” as in John 3:15; Mark 1:15; Acts 5:14

3. epi means “in” or “upon,” as in Matt. 27:42; Acts 9:42; 11:17; 16:31; 22:19; Rom. 4:5,24; 9:33; 10:11; I Tim. 1:16; I Pet. 2:6

4. the dative case with no preposition as in Gal. 3:6; Acts 18:8; 27:25; I John 3:23; 5:10

5. hoti, which means “believe that,” gives content as to what to believe

a. Jesus is the Holy One of God (John 6:69)

b. Jesus is the I Am (John 8:24)

c. Jesus is in the Father and the Father is in Him (John 10:38)

d. Jesus is the Messiah (John 11:27; 20:31)

e. Jesus is the Son of God (John 11:27; 20:31)

f. Jesus was sent by the Father (John 11:42; 17:8,21)

g. Jesus is one with the Father (John 14:10-11)

h. Jesus came from the Father (John 16:27,30)

i. Jesus identified Himself in the covenant name of the Father, “I Am” (John 8:24; 13:19)

j. We will live with Him (Rom. 6:8)

k. Jesus died and rose again (I Thess. 4:14)

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SPECIAL TOPIC: FASTING

Fasting, though never commanded in the NT, was expected at the appropriate time for Jesus’ disciples (cf. Matt. 6:16,17; 9:15; Mark 2:19; Luke 5:35). Proper fasting is described in Isaiah 58. Jesus set the precedent Himself (cf. Matt. 4:2). The early church fasted (cf. Acts 13:2-3; 14:23; II Cor. 6:5; 11:27). The motive and manner are crucial; the timing; the length and frequency are optional. OT fasting is not a requirement for NT believers (cf. Acts 15:19-29). Fasting is not a way of showing off one's spirituality, but of drawing closer to God and seeking His guidance. It can be spiritually helpful.

The early church’s tendencies toward asceticism caused scribes to insert “fasting” in several passages (i.e. Matt. 17:21; Mark 9:29; Acts 10:30; I Cor. 7:5). For further information on these questionable texts consult Bruce Metzger’s A Textual Commentary on the Greek New Testament, published by United Bible Societies.

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SPECIAL TOPIC: FATHER

The OT introduces the intimate familial metaphor of God as Father:

1. the nation of Israel is often described as YHWH’s “son” (cf. Hos. 11:1; Mal. 3:17)

2. even earlier in Deuteronomy the analogy of God as Father is used (1:31)

3. in Deut. 32 Israel is called “his children” and God is called “your father”

4. this analogy is stated in Ps. 103:13 and developed in Ps. 68:5 (the father of orphans)

5. it was common in the prophets (cf. Isa. 1:2; 63:8; Israel as son, God as Father, 63:16; 64:8; Jer. 3:4,19; 31:9).

Jesus spoke Aramaic, which means that many of the places where “Father” appears as the Greek Pater may reflect the Aramaic Abba (cf. 14:36). This familial term “Daddy” or “Papa” reflects Jesus’ intimacy with the Father; His revealing this to His followers also encourages our own intimacy with the Father. The term “Father” was used sparingly in the OT for YHWH, but Jesus uses it often and pervasively. It is a major revelation of believers’ new relationship with God through Christ (cf. Matthew 6:9).

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SPECIAL TOPIC: FATHERHOOD OF GOD

I. Old Testament

A. There is a sense that God is father by means of creation.

1. Gen. 1:26-27

2. Mal. 2:10

3. Acts 17:28

B. Father is an analogy used in several senses.

1. father of Israel (by election)

a. “Son” – Exod. 4:22; Deut. 14:1; 39:5; Isa. 1:2; 63:16; 64:8; Jer. 3:19; 31:20; Hosea 1:10; 11:1; Mal. 1:6

b. “firstborn” – Exod. 4:22; Jer. 31:9

2. father of the king of Israel (Messianic)

a. II Sam. 7:11-16

b. Ps. 2:7; Acts 13:33; Heb. 1:5; 5:5

c. Hosea 11:1; Matt. 2:15

3. analogy of loving parent

a. father (metaphor)

(1) carries his son – Deut. 1:31

(2) disciplines – Deut. 8:5; Pro. 3:!2

(3) provision (i.e., Exodus) – Deut. 32:1

(4) will never forsake – Ps. 27:10

(5) loves – Ps. 103:13

(6) friend/guide – Jer. 3:4

(7) healer/forgiver – Jer. 3:22

(8) mercy giver – Jer. 31:20

(9) trainer – Hosea 11:1-4

(10) special son – Mal. 3:!7

b. mother (metaphor)

(1) will never forsake – Ps. 27:10

(2) love of a nursing mother – Isa. 49:15; 66:9-13 and Hosea 11:4 (with the proposed textual emendation of “yoke” to “infant”)

II. New Testament

A. The Trinity (texts where all three are mentioned)

1. Gospels

a. Matt. 3:16-17; 28:19

b. John 14:26

2. Paul

a. Rom. 1:4-5; 5:1,5; 8:1-4,8-10

b. I Cor. 2:8-10; 12:4-6

c. II Cor. 1:21; 13:14

d. Gal. 4:4-6

e. Eph. 1:3-14,17; 2:18; 3:14-17; 4:4-

f. I Thess. 1:2-5

g. II Thess. 2:13

h. Titus 3:4-6

3. Peter – I Pet. 1:2

4. Jude – vv. 20-21

B. Jesus

1. Jesus as “only begotten” – John 1:18; 3:16,18; I John 4:9

2. Jesus as “Son of God” – Matt. 4:3; 14:33; 16:16; Luke 1:32,35; John 1:34,49; 6:69; 11:27

3. Jesus as Beloved Son – Matt. 3:17; 17:5

4. Jesus’ use of abba for God – Mark 14:36

5. Jesus’ use of pronouns to show both His and our relationship to God

a. “My Father,” e.g., John 5:18; 10:30,33; 19:7; 20:17

b. “your Father,” e.g., Matt. 17:24-27

c. “our Father,” e.g., Matt. 6:9,14,26

C. One of many family metaphors to describe the intimate relationship between God and humankind:

1. God as Father

2. Believers as

a. sons of God

b. children

c. born of God

d. born again

e. adopted

f. brought forth

g. family of God

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SPECIAL TOPIC: FIRE

Fire has both positive and negative connotations in Scripture.

A. Positive

1. warms (cf. Isa. 44:15; John 18:18)

2. lights (cf. Isa. 50:11; Matt. 25:1-13)

3. cooks (cf. Exod. 12:8; Isa. 44:15-16; John 21:9)

4. purifies (cf. Num. 31:22-23; Pro. 17:3; Isa. 1:25; 6:6-8; Jer. 6:29; Mal. 3:2-3)

5. holiness (cf. Gen. 15:17; Exod. 3:2; 19:18; Ezek. 1:27; Heb. 12:29)

6. God’s leadership (cf. Exod. 13:21; Num. 14:14; I Kgs. 18:24)

7. God’s empowering (cf. Acts 2:3)

8. Protection (cf. Zech. 2:5)

B. Negative

1. burns (cf. Josh. 6:24; 8:8; 11:11; Matt. 22:7)

2. destroys (cf. Gen. 19:24; Lev. 10:1-2)

3. anger (cf. Num. 21:28; Isa. 10:16; Zech. 12:6)

4. punishment (cf. Gen. 38:24; Lev. 20:14; 21:9; Josh. 7:15)

5. false eschatological sign (cf. Rev. 13:13)

C. God’s anger against sin is expressed in fire metaphors

1. His anger burns (cf. Hos. 8:5; Zeph. 3:8)

2. He pours out fire (cf. Nah. 1:6)

3. eternal fire (cf. Jer. 15:14; 17:4)

4. eschatological judgment (cf. Matt. 3:10; 13:40; John 15:6; II Thess. 1:7; II Pet. 3:7-10; Rev. 8:7; 16:8)

D. Like so many metaphors in the Bible (i.e., leaven, lion) fire can be a blessing or a curse depending on the context.

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SPECIAL TOPIC: FIRSTBORN

This word “firstborn” (prōtotokos) is used in the Bible in several distinct senses.

1. its OT background refers to the pre-imminence of the first-born son of the family (cf. Ps. 89:27; Luke 2:7; Rom. 8:29; Heb. 11:28)

2. its use in Col. 1:15 speaks of Jesus as the first of creation which is a possible OT allusion to Prov. 8:22-31, or God’s agent of creation (cf. John 1:3; I Cor. 8:6; Col. 1:15-16; Heb. 1:2)

3. its use in Col. 1:18; I Cor. 15:20 (and here) refers to Jesus as the firstborn from the dead

4. it is an OT title used of the Messiah (cf. Ps. 89:27; Heb. 1:6; 12:23). It was a title which combines several aspects of the primacy and centrality of Jesus. In this context #3 or #4 fits best.

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SPECIAL TOPIC: FLESH (sarx)

This refers to human wisdom or worldly standards (cf. I Cor. 1:20; 2:6,8; 3:18). Paul uses the term “flesh” (i.e., sarx) in several ways in his writings.

1. the human body (cf. Rom. 2:28; I Cor. 5:5; 7:28)

2. human descent (i.e., father-son, cf. Rom. 1:3; 4:1; I Cor.10:18)

3. humanity as a whole (cf. I Cor. 1:26,29)

4. human weakness because of the fall of mankind in Genesis 3 (cf. Rom. 6:19; 7:18)

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SPECIAL TOPIC: TERMS FOR FOOLISH PEOPLE

There is a precedent of using this response to falsehood in the OT Hebrew.

1. kesil – which implies a self-confidence in Wisdom Literature (e.g., Proverbs. 17 and 26; Ecclesiastes 7)

2. evil – which implies a mental competence also used mostly in Wisdom Literature (e.g., Isa. 29:11; 35:8; Hos. 9:7)

3. nabal – which implies an empty headed person (e.g., Deut. 32:6,21; II Sam. 3:33; 13:13; Ps. 14:1; 53:1; Jer. 12:11)

4. sakal – which implies a thickheaded person (e.g., I Sam. 26:21; Eccl. 2:19; 10:3,14)

Jesus used three words to describe foolish people.

1. aphrōn, Luke 11:40; 12:20

2. anoētos, Luke 24:25

3. mōros, Matt. 5:22; 23:17,19

The strongest statement by Jesus in regard to the use of a characterization of one person by another is in Matt. 5:22, where mōros reflects the Aramaic word raca, which means incapable of life.

Paul follows the OT and Jesus in using several terms to describe foolish people.

1. aphrōn, I Cor. 15:36; II Cor. 11:16,19; 12:6,11

2. mōros, I Cor. 3:18; 4:10 and a related form in Rom. 1:22

People who claim to know God, but think and act in inappropriate ways, are often characterized as poor thinkers! Paul’s sarcastic comments, so frequent in I and II Corinthians, reveal this type of person. They were so confident that they possessed knowledge that they could not see nor recognize true knowledge!

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SPECIAL TOPIC: FOREVER (GREEK IDIOM)

One Greek idiomatic phrase is “unto the ages” (cf. Luke 1:33; Rom. 1:25; 11:36; 16:27; Gal. 1:5;

I Tim. 1:17), which may reflect the Hebrew ‘olam. See Robert B. Girdlestone, Synonyms of the Old Testament, pp. 319-321, and OT Special Topic: Forever (‘Olam). Other related phrases are “unto the age” (cf. Matt. 21:19 [Mark 11:14]; Luke 1:55; John 6:58; 8:35; 12:34; 13:8; 14:16; II Cor. 9:9) and “of the age of the ages” (cf. Eph. 3:21). There seems to be no distinction between these Greek idioms for “forever.” The term “ages” may be plural in a figurative sense of the rabbinical grammatical construction called “the plural of majesty” or it may refer to the concept of several “ages” in the Jewish sense of “age of wickedness,” “age to come,” or “age of righteousness.”

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SPECIAL TOPIC: FOREVER (‘OLAM)

The etymology of the Hebrew term ’olam, םלוע (BDB 761) is uncertain (NIDOTTE, vol. 3, p. 345). It is used in several senses (usually determined by context). The following are only selected examples.

1. ancient things

a. peoples, Gen. 6:4; I Sam. 27:8; Jer. 5:15; 28:8

b. places, Isa. 58:12; 61:4

c. God, Ps. 93:2; Pro. 8:23; Isa. 63:16

d. things, Gen. 49:26; Job 22:15; Ps. 24:7,9; Isa. 46:9

e. time, Deut. 32:7; Isa. 51:9; 63:9,11

2. future time

a. one’s life, Exod. 21:6; Deut. 15:17; I Sam. 1:22; 27:12

b. hyperbole for king, I Kgs. 1:31; Ps. 61:7; Neh. 2:3

c. continuous existence

(1) earth, Ps. 78:69; 104:5; Eccl. 1:4

(2) heavens, Ps. 148:5

d. existence of God

(1) Gen. 21:33

(2) Exod. 15:18

(3) Deut. 32:40

(4) Ps. 93:2

(5) Isa. 40:28

(6) Jer. 10:10

(7) Dan. 12:7

e. the covenant

(1) Gen. 9:12,16; 17:7,13,19

(2) Exod. 31:16

(3) Lev. 24:8

(4) Num. 18:19

(5) II Sam. 23:5

(6) Ps. 105:10

(7) Isa. 24:5; 55:3; 61:8

(8) Jer. 32:40; 50:5

f. special covenant with David

(1) II Sam. 7:13,16,25,29; 22:51; 23:5

(2) I Kgs. 2:33,45; 9:5

(3) II chr. 13:5

(4) Ps. 18:50; 89:4,28,36,37

(5) Isa. 9:7; 16:5; 37:35; 55:3

g. God’s Messiah

(1) Ps. 45:2; 72:17; 89:35-36; 110:4

(2) Isa. 9:6

h. God’s laws

(1) Exod. 29:28; 30:21

(2) Lev. 6:18,22; 7:34; 10:15; 24:9

(3) Num. 18:8,11,19

(4) Ps. 119:89,160

i. God’s promises

(1) II Sam. 7:13,16,25; 22:51

(2) I Kgs. 9:5

(3) Ps. 18:50

(4) Isa. 40:8

j. Abraham’s descendants and the Promised Land

(1) Gen. 13:15; 17:18; 48:4

(2) Exod. 32:13

(3) I Chr. 16:17

k. covenantal feasts

(1) Exod. 12:14; 12:14,17,24

(2) Lev. 23:14,21,41

(3) Num. 10:8

l. eternity everlasting

(1) I Kgs. 8:P13

(2) Ps. 61:7-8; 77:8; 90:2; 103:17; 145:13

(3) Isa. 26:4; 45:17

(4) Dan. 9:24

m. what the Psalms say believers will do forever

(1) give thanks, Ps. 30:12; 79:13

(2) abide in His presence, Ps. 41:12; 61:4,7

(3) trust in His mercy, Ps. 52:8

(4) praise the Lord, Ps. 52:9

(5) sing praises, Ps. 61:7; 89:1

(6) declare His justice, Ps. 75:9

(7) glorify His name, Ps. 86:12; 145:2

(8) bless His name, Ps. 145:1

3. both backward and forward in time (“from everlasting to everlasting”)

a. Ps. 41:13 (praise to God)

b. Ps. 90:2 (God Himself)

c. Ps. 103:17 (the lovingkindness of the Lord)

Remember, context determines the extent of the term’s meaning. The everlasting covenants and promises are conditional (i.e., Jeremiah 7). Be careful of reading your modern view of time or your NT systematic theology into every OT usage of this very fluid word. The NT universalized OT promises.

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SPECIAL TOPIC: FORM (TUPOS)

The problem is the word tupos, which has a variety of uses.

1. Moulton and Milligan, The Vocabulary of the Greek New Testament, p. 645

a. pattern

b. plan

c. form or manner of writing

d. decree or rescript

e. sentence or decision

f. model of human body as votive offerings to the healing god

g. verb used in the sense of enforcing the precepts of the law

2. Louw and Nida, Greek-English Lexicon, vol. 2, p. 249

a. scar (cf. John 20:25)

b. image (cf. Acts 7:43)

c. model (cf. Heb. 8:5)

d. example (cf. I Cor. 10:6; Phil. 3:17)

e. archetype (cf. Rom. 5:14)

f. kind (cf. Acts 23:25)

g. contents (cf. Acts 23:25)

3. Harold K. Moulton, The Analytical Greek Lexicon Revised, p. 411

a. a blow, an impression, a mark (cf. John 20:25)

b. a delineation

c. an image (cf. Acts 7:43)

d. a formula, scheme (cf. Rom. 6:17)

e. form, purport (cf. Acts 23:25)

f. a figure, counterpart (cf. I Cor. 10:6)

g. an anticipative figure, type (cf. Rom. 5:14; I Cor. 10:11)

h. a model pattern (cf. Acts 7:44; Heb. 8:5)

i. a moral pattern (cf. Phil. 3:17; I Thess. 1:7; II Thess. 3:9; I Tim. 4:12; I Pet. 5:3)

In this context # i above seems best. The gospel has both doctrine and lifestyle implications. The free gift of salvation in Christ also demands a life like Christ!

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SPECIAL TOPIC: FORTY-TWO MONTHS

The number forty-two months is prophetically characteristic of a period of persecution. The trampling of the outer court is a proverb for the people of God under the domination of unbelievers in different periods in history—Antiochus Epiphanes, the Romans in a.d. 70, and the end-time Antichrist.

Forty-two months, or its equivalent, is mentioned several times in the Bible. The origin seems to be the book of Daniel.

1. Daniel 7:25; 12:7 mention “a time, times, and half a time” or 1277 days (assuming a “time” equals one year)

2. Daniel 8:14 mentions 2300 evenings and mornings

3. Daniel 12:11 mentions 1290 days

4. Daniel 12:12 mentions 1335 days. Similar phrasing is found in Rev. 12:6 (1260 days) and 13:5 (42 months).

When all of these occurrences are taken into account, their variety seems to speak of the symbolic nature of the numbers, while their proximity to forty-two months seems to show that it is a symbolic number for a period of persecution. Since three and a half is half of seven, it seems to be a reference to a complete period of persecution that has been cut short (cf. Matt. 24:22; Mark 13:20; Luke 21:24). Persecution is limited in God’s love as is judgment.

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SPECIAL TOPIC: GAMALIEL

I. The Name

A. The name means “God is my rewarder.”

B. He is knows as “the elder” or Gamaliel I to distinguish him from a later relative, also very active in Jewish leadership.

II. The Man

A. Tradition says he was the grandson of Hillel.

B. Other traditions say he had ties to the royal family of Herod (i.e., Agrippa I).

C. Tradition says he was president of the Sanhedrin, but this probably refers to Gamaliel II.

D. He was one of seven highly respected rabbi who was given the title Rabban.

E. He died before a.d. 70.

III. His Theology

A. He was a highly respected rabbi.

B. He was known for caring for and staying in control with the scattered Jews of the Diaspora.

C. He was also known for his concern for the socially disenfranchised (his Takkonot often began with “for the benefit of humanity”).

1. orphans

2. widows

3. women

D. He was Paul the Apostle’s rabbinical mentor in Jerusalem (cf. Acts 22:3).

E. In Acts 5:33-39 he gives sage wisdom about how to handle the early church in Palestine.

F. This rabbi was so highly thought of that at his death it was said, “When Rabban Gamaliel the elder died the glory of the Torah ceased and purity and saintliness (lit. “separation’) perished (Sot. 9:15), taken from Encyclopedia Judaica, vol. 7, p. 296.

G. It must be stated that Gamaliel’s motivation in this case is uncertain. He may have been asserting the wisdom of Pharisees against the impulsiveness of the Sadducees. These two powerful Jewish sects exploited each other at every opportunity!

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SPECIAL TOPIC: GENEROUS/SINCERE (HAPLOTES)

This term (haplotes) had two connotations, “generous” or “sincere.” It was a metaphor related to vision. In the OT the eye was used as a metaphor for motive in two ways.

1. evil eye (stingy, cf. Deut. 15:9 and Pro. 23:6; 28:22)

2. good eye (generous, cf. Pro. 22:9)

Jesus followed this usage (cf. Matt. 6:22-23; 20:15). Paul uses this term in two senses.

1. “simplicity, sincerity, purity” (cf. II Cor. 1:12; 11:3; Eph. 6:5; Col. 3:22)

2. “liberality” (cf. Rom. 12:8; II Cor. 8:2; 9:11,13)

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SPECIAL TOPIC: GLORY (APAUGASMA)

The word “radiance” (apaugasma) is used only here in the NT. In Philo it was used of Christ’s relationship to God in the sense that the logos was a reflection of deity. The early Greek church fathers used it in the sense of Christ as the reflection or effulgence of God. In a popular sense to see Jesus is to see God, as a mirror reflects the light of the full sun. The Hebrew term “glory” (kabod) was often used in the sense of brightness (cf. Exod. 16:10; 24:16-17; Lev. 9:6).

This phrasing may be related to Prov. 8:22-31, where “wisdom” (the term is feminine in both Hebrew and Greek) is personified as God’s first creation (cf. Sirach 1:4) and agent of creation (cf. Wisdom of Solomon 9:9). This same concept is developed in the apocryphal book Wisdom of Solomon 7:15-22a and 22b-30. In v. 22 wisdom fashions all things; in v. 25 wisdom is pure emanation of the glory of the Almighty; in v. 26 wisdom is the reflection of eternal light, a spotless mirror of the working of God; in v. 29 compared with the light (i.e., sun and stars) she is found to be superior.

In the OT the most common Hebrew word for “glory” (kabod) was originally a commercial term (which referred to a pair of scales) which meant “to be heavy.” That which was heavy was valuable or had intrinsic worth. Often the concept of brightness was added to the word to express God’s majesty. He alone is worthy and honorable. He is too brilliant for fallen mankind to behold. God can only be truly known through Christ (cf. Jer. 1:14; Matt. 17:2; Heb. 1:3; James 2:1).

The term “glory” is somewhat ambiguous:

1. it may be parallel to “the righteousness of God”

2. it may refer to the “holiness” or “perfection” of God

3. it could refer to the image of God in which mankind was created (cf. Gen. 1:26-27; 5:1; 9:6), but which was later marred through rebellion (cf. Gen. 3:1-22).

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SPECIAL TOPIC: GLORY (DOXA)

The biblical concept of “glory” is difficult to define. Believers’ glory is that they understand the gospel and glory in God, not in themselves (cf. 1:29-31; Jer. 9:23-24).

In the OT the most common Hebrew word for “glory” (kbd, BDB 217) was originally a commercial term relating to a pair of scales (“to be heavy”). That which was heavy was valuable or had intrinsic worth. Often the concept of brightness was added to the word to express God’s majesty (cf. Exod. 19:16-18; 24:17; Isa. 60:1-2). He alone is worthy and honorable. He is too brilliant for fallen mankind to behold (cf. Exod 33:17-23; Isa. 6:5). YHWH can only be truly known through Christ (cf. Jer. 1:14; Matt. 17:2; Heb. 1:3; James 2:1).

The term “glory” is somewhat ambiguous.

1. it may be parallel to “the righteousness of God”

2. it may refer to the “holiness” or “perfection” of God

3. it could refer to the image of God in which mankind was created (cf. Gen. 1:26-27; 5:1; 9:6), but which was later marred through rebellion (cf. Gen. 3:1-22). It is first used of YHWH’s presence with His people during the wilderness wandering period in Exod. 16:7,10; Lev. 9:23; and Num. 14:10.

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SPECIAL TOPIC: GNOSTICISM

A. Most of our knowledge of this heresy comes from the gnostic writings of the second century. However, its ideas were present in the first century (Dead Sea Scrolls) and the Apostle John’s writings.

B. The problem at Ephesus (I Timothy), Crete (Titus) and Colossae (Colossians) was a hybrid of incipient gnosticism and legalistic Judaism.

C. Some tenets of Valentinian and Cerinthian Gnosticism of the second century.

1. Matter and spirit were co-eternal (an ontological dualism). Matter is evil, spirit is good. God, who is spirit, cannot be directly involved with molding evil matter.

2. There are emanations (eons or angelic levels) between God and matter. The last or lowest one was YHWH of the Old Testament, who formed the universe (kosmos).

3. Jesus was an emanation, like YHWH, but higher on the scale, closer to the true God. Some put Him as the highest, but still less than God and certainly not incarnate deity (cf. John 1:14). Since matter is evil, Jesus could not have a human body and still be divine. He appeared to be human, but was really only a spirit (cf. I John 1:1-3; 4:1-6).

4. Salvation was obtained through faith in Jesus plus special knowledge, which is only known by special persons. Knowledge (passwords) was needed to pass through heavenly spheres. Jewish legalism was also required to reach God.

D. The gnostic false teachers advocated two opposite ethical systems.

1. For some, lifestyle was totally unrelated to salvation. For them, salvation and spirituality were encapsulated into secret knowledge (passwords) through the angelic spheres (eons).

2. For others, lifestyle was crucial to salvation. In this book, the false teachers emphasized an ascetic lifestyle as evidence of true salvation (cf. 2:16-23).

E. A good reference book is The Nag Hammadi Library by James M. Robinson and Richard Smith

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SPECIAL TOPIC: GOD DESCRIBED AS A HUMAN (anthropomorphic language)

I. This type of language is very common in the OT (some examples)

A. Physical body parts

1. eyes – Gen. 1:4,31; 6:8; Exod. 33:17; Num. 14:14; Deut. 11:12; Zech. 4:10

2. hands – Exod. 15:17; Num. 11:23; Deut. 2:15

3. arm – Exod. 6:6; 15:16; Num. 11:23; Deut. 4:34; 5:15

4. ears – Num. 11:18; I Sam. 8:21; II Kgs. 19:16; Ps. 5:1; 10:17; 18:6

5. face – Exod. 32:30; 33:11; Num. 6:25; Deut. 34:10; Ps. 114:7

6. finger – Exod. 8:19; 31:18; Deut. 9:10; Ps. 8:3

7. voice – Gen. 3:8,10; Exod. 15:26; 19:19; Deut. 26:17; 27:10

8. feet – Exod. 24:10; Ezek. 43:7

9. human form – Exod. 24:9-11; Ps. 47; Isa. 6:1; Ezek. 1:26

10. the angel of the Lord – Gen. 16:7-13; 22:11-15; 31:11,13; 48:15-16; Exod. 3:4,13-21; 14:19; Jdgs. 2:1; 6:22-23; 13:3-22

B. Physical actions

1. speaking as the mechanism of creation – Gen. 1:3,6,9,11,14,20,24,26

2. walking (i.e., sound of) in Eden – Gen. 3:8; 18:33; Hab. 3:15

3. closing the door of Noah’s ark – Gen. 7:16

4. smelling sacrifices – Gen. 8:21; Lev. 26:31; Amos 5:21

5. coming down – Gen. 11:5; 18:21; Exod. 3:8; 19:11,18,20

6. burying Moses – Deut. 34:6

C. Human emotions (some examples)

1. regret/repent – Gen. 6:6,7; Exod. 32:14; Jdgs. 2:18; I Sam. 15:29,35; Amos 7:3,6

2. anger – Exod. 4:14; 15:7; Num. 11:10; 12:9; 22:22; 25:3,4; 32:10,13,14; Deut. 6:5; 7:4; 29:20

3. jealousy – Exod. 20:5; 34:14; Deut. 4:24; 5:9; 6:15; 32:16,21; Josh. 24:19

4. loathe/abhor – Lev. 20:23; 26:30; Deut. 32:19

D. Family terms (some examples)

1. Father

a. of Israel – Exod. 4:22; Deut. 14:1; 39:5

b. of the king – II Sam. 7:11-16; Ps. 2:7

c. metaphors of fatherly action – Deut. 1:31; 8:5; 32:1; Ps. 27:10; Pro. 3:12; Jer. 3:4,22; 31:20; Hosea 11:1-4; Mal. 3:17

2. Parent – Hosea 11:1-4

3. Mother – Ps. 27:10 (analogy to nursing mother); Isa. 49:15; 66:9-13

4. Young faithful lover – Hosea 1-3

II. Reasons for the use of this type of language

A. It is a necessity for God to reveal Himself to human beings. The very pervasive concept of God as male is an anthropomorphism because God is spirit!

B. God takes the most meaningful aspects of human life and uses them to reveal Himself to fallen humanity (father, mother, parent, lover)

C. Though necessary, God does not want to be limited to any physical form (cf. Exodus 20; Deuteronomy 5)

D. The ultimate anthropomorphism is the incarnation of Jesus! God became physical, touchable (cf. I John 1:1-3). The message of God became the Word of God (cf. John 1:1-18).

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SPECIAL TOPIC: GOD’S PLAN FOR REDEMPTION, “MYSTERY”

God has a unified purpose for mankind’s redemption that even preceded the Fall (Genesis 3). Hints of this plan are revealed in the OT (Genesis 3:15; 12:3; Exodus 19:5-6; and the universal passages in the prophets). However, this inclusive agenda was not clear (I Cor. 2:6-8). With the coming of Jesus and the Spirit it begins to become more obvious. Paul used the term “mystery” to describe this total redemptive plan, which was once hidden, but now fully revealed (I Cor. 4:1; Eph. 6:19; Col. 4:3; I Tim. 1:9). However, he used it in several different senses.

1. A partial hardening of Israel to allow Gentiles to be included. This influx of Gentiles will work as a mechanism (jealousy) for Jews to accept Jesus as the Messiah of prophecy (Rom. 11:25-32).

2. The gospel was made known to the nations, all of whom are potentially included in Christ and through Christ (Rom. 16:25-27; Col. 2:2).

3. Believers will have new bodies at the Second Coming (I Cor. 15:5-57; I Thess. 4:13-18).

4. The summing up of all things in Christ (Eph. 1:8-11).

5. The Gentiles and Jews are fellow-heirs (Eph. 2:11-3:13).

6. Intimacy of the relationship between Christ and the Church described in marriage terms (Eph. 5:22-33).

7. Gentiles included in the covenant people and indwelt by the Spirit of Christ so as to produce Christlike maturity, that is, the restored image of God in fallen humanity (Gen. 1:26-27; 5:1; Col. 1:26-28).

8. The end-time AntiChrist (II Thess. 2:1-11).

9. An early church summary of the mystery is found in I Tim. 3:16.

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SPECIAL TOPIC: HUMAN GOVERNMENT

I. INTRODUCTION

A. Definition – Government is humanity organizing itself to provide and secure sensed needs (i.e., Genesis 4 and 11). Humans are social beings (even before the Fall (cf. Gen. 2:18). Families, tribes, nations give us community.

B. Purpose – God has willed that order is preferable to anarchy.

1. The Mosaic legislation, particularly the Decalog, is God’s will for mankind in society. It balances worship and life.

2. No form or structure of government is advocated in Scripture, although ancient Israel’s theocracy is the anticipated form of heaven. Neither democracy nor capitalism is a biblical truth. Christians are to act appropriately in whatever governmental system they find themselves. The purpose of the Christian is evangelism and ministry, not revolution. All governments are transitory!

C. Origin of human government

1. Roman Catholicism has asserted that human government is an innate need, even before the Fall. Aristotle seems to have first assured this premise. He says, “man is a political animal” and by this he meant that government “exists for the promotion of the good life.”

2. Protestantism, especially Martin Luther, has asserted that human government is inherent in the Fall. He calls it “the Kingdom of God’s left hand.” He said that “God’s way to control bad men is to put bad men in control.”

3. Karl Marx has asserted that government is the means by which a few elite keep the masses under control. For him, government and religion play a similar role.

II. BIBLICAL MATERIAL

A. Old Testament

1. Israel is the pattern which will be utilized in heaven. In ancient Israel YHWH was King. Theocracy is the term used to describe God’s direct rule (cf. I Sam. 8:4-9).

2. God’s sovereignty in human government can be clearly seen in His appointing

a. all kings, Dan. 2:21; 4:17,24-25

b. the Messianic reign, Dan. 2:44-45

c. Nebuchadnezzar (neo-Babylon), Jer. 27:6; Dan. 5:28

d. Cyrus II (Persia), II Chr. 36:22; Ezra 1:1; Isa. 44:28; 45:1

3. God’s people are to be submissive and respectful even to invading and occupying governments:

a. Daniel 1-4, Nebuchadnezzar (neo-Babylon)

b. Daniel 5, Belshazzar (neo-Babylon)

c. Daniel 6, Darius (Persia)

d. Ezra and Nehemiah (Persia)

4. Restored Judah was to pray for Cyrus and his descendants’ reign

a. Ezra 6:10; 7:23

b. Jews were to pray for civil authority, Mishnah, Avot. 3:2

B. New Testament

1. Jesus showed respect to human governments

a. Matthew 17:24-27; He paid the Temple tax (religious and civil authorities were meant to be one, cf. I Pet. 2:17)

b. Matthew 22:15-22; Mark 12:13-17; Luke 20:20-26, He advocated a place for the Roman tax and thereby Roman civil authority

c. John 19:11, God allows civil authority

2. Paul’s words related to human governments

a. Romans 13:1-5, believers must submit to civil authorities for they are established by God

b. Romans 13:6-7, believers must pay taxes and honor civil authorities

c. I Timothy 2:1-3, believers must pray for civil authorities

c. Titus 3:1, believers must be subject to civil authorities

3. Peter’s words related to human governments

a. Acts 4:1-31; 5:29, Peter and John before the Sanhedrin (this shows biblical precedent for civil disobedience)

b. I Peter 2:13-17, believers must submit to civil authorities for the good of society and for evangelism

4. John’s words related to human governments

a. Revelation 17, the whore of Babylon stands for human government organized and functioning apart from God

b. Revelation 18, the whore of Babylon is destroyed

III. CONCLUSION

A. Human government (in a fallen world) is ordained by God. This is not “the divine right of Kings,” but the divine task of government. No one form is advocated above another.

B. It is a religious duty for believers to obey and pray for civil authority.

C. It is proper for believers to support human government by taxes with a proper reverent attitude.

D. Human government is for the purpose of civil order. They are God’s servants for this task.

E. Human government is not ultimate. It is limited in its authority. Believers must act for their conscience’s sake in rejecting civil authority when it oversteps its divinely appointed bounds. As Augustine has asserted in The City of God, we are citizens of two realms, one temporal and one eternal (cf. Phil. 3:20). We have responsibility in both, but God’s kingdom is ultimate! There is both an individual and corporate focus in our responsibility to God.

F. We should encourage believers in a democratic system to actively participate in the process of government and to implement, when possible, the teachings of Scripture.

G. Social change must be preceded by individual conversion. There is no real lasting eschatological hope in government. All human governments, though willed and used by God, are sinful expressions of human organization apart from God. This concept is expressed in the Johannine usage of the term “the world” (i.e., I John 2:15-17).

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SPECIAL TOPIC: GREEK TERMS FOR TESTING AND THEIR CONNOTATIONS

There are two Greek terms which have the idea of testing someone for a purpose.

1. Dokimazō, Dokimion, Dokimasia

This term is a metalurgist term for testing the genuineness of something i.e., metaphorically someone) by fire. The fire reveals the true metal and burns off (i.e., purifies) the dross. This physical process became a powerful idiom for God and/or Satan and/or humans testing others. This term is only used in a positive sense of testing with a view towards acceptance.

It is used in the NT of testing

a. oxen – Luke 14:19

b. ourselves – I Cor. 11:28

c. our faith – James. 1:3

d. even God – Heb. 3:9

The outcomes of these tests were assumed to be positive (cf. Rom. 1:28; 14:22; 16:10; II Cor. 10:18; 13:3; Phil. 2:27; I Pet. 1:7), therefore, the term conveys the idea of someone examined and proved

a. to be worthwhile

b. to be good

c. to be genuine

d. to be valuable

e. to be honored

2. Peirazō, Peirasmus

This term often has the connotation of examination for the purpose of fault finding or rejection. It is often used in connection to Jesus’ temptation in the wilderness.

a. It conveys the attempt to trap Jesus (cf. Matt. 4:1; 16:1; 19:3; 22:18, 35; Mark 1:13; Luke 4:38; Heb. 2:18).

b. This term (peirazōn) is used as a title for Satan in Matt. 4:3; I Thess. 3:5.

c. It is used by Jesus warning us not to test God (cf. Matt. 14:7; Luke 4:12) [or Christ cf. I Cor 10:9]. It also denotes the attempt to do something that has failed (cf. Acts 9:20; 20:21; Heb.11:29). It

is used in connection with the temptation and trials of believers (cf. I Cor. 7:5; 10:9, 13; Gal. 6:1; I Thess. 3:5; Heb. 2:18; James. 1:2, 13, 14; I Pet. 4:12; II Pet 2:9). God allows the three enemies of mankind (i.e., the world, the flesh, and the devil) to manifest in a specific time and place.

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SPECIAL TOPIC: GRIEVING RITES

The Israelites expressed sorrow for the death of a loved one and for personal repentance, as well as corporate crimes, in several ways:

1. tear outer robe, Gen. 37:29,34; 44:13; Jdgs. 11:35; II Sam. 1:11; 3:31; I Kgs. 21:27; Job 1:20

2. put on sackcloth, Gen. 37:34; II Sam. 3:31; I Kgs. 21:27; Jer. 48:37

3. take off shoes, II Sam. 15:30; Isa. 20:3

4. put hands on head, II Sam. 13:9; Jer. 2:37

5. put dust on head, Josh. 7:6; I Sam. 4:12; Neh. 9:1

6. sit on the ground, Lam. 2:10; Ezek. 26:16 (lie on the ground, II Sam. 12:16); Isa. 47:1

7. beat the breast, I Sam. 25:1; II Sam. 11:26; Nah. 2:7

8. cut the body, Deut. 14:1; Jer. 16:6; 48:37

9. fast, II Sam. 1:16,22; I Kgs. 21:27

10. chant a lament, II Sam. 1:17; 3:31; II Chr. 35:25

11. baldness (hair pulled out or shaved), Jer. 48:37

12. cut beards short, Jer. 48:37

13. cover head or face, II Sam. 15:30; 19:4

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SPECIAL TOPIC: GUARANTEE

This is the Greek term bebaios, which has three connotations.

1. that which is sure, certain, or able to be relied on (cf. Rom. 4:16; II Cor. 1:7; Heb. 2:20; 3:6,14; 6:19; II Pet. 1:10,19).

2. the process by which something’s trustworthiness is shown or established (cf. Rom. 15:8; Heb. 2:2, cf. Louw and Nida, Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament, Vol. 1, pp. 340,377,670).

3. in the papyri it became a technical term for a legal guarantee (cf. Moulton and Milligan, The Vocabulary of the Greek New Testament, pp. 107-8).

This would be the antithesis of v. 14. God’s promises are sure!

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SPECIAL TOPIC: HEAD (KEPHALĒ)

There has been extensive theological discussion over the meaning of “head” (kephalē). The term can be understood as

1. its OT Hebrew equivalent is rosh, which can mean

a. head

b. chief

c. beginning

d. total amount

(cf. Dictionary of Old Testament Theology and Exegesis, vol. 3, pp. 1015-1020)

2. in the LXX rosh is translated by the Greek word

a. archē (beginning, cf. Ps. 137:6)

b. prōtotokos (first, cf. I Chr. 5:12)

c. kephalē (head)

(1) head of a human

(2) head of an animal

(3) top of a mountain

(4) top of a tower (cf. Matt. 21:42)

3. in the NT kephalē

a. head of a human (cf. I Cor. 11:4,5,7)

b. head of an animal

c. idiomatic of the whole person

d. beginning or source (cf. I Cor. 11:3)

e. sum (cf. Rom. 13:9)

f. leader

g. husband (cf. Eph. 5:23)

(cf. Dictionary of New Testament Theology, vol. 2, pp. 156-163)

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SPECIAL TOPIC: IS HEALING GOD’S PLAN FOR EVERY AGE?

1. Healing was a significant aspect of the ministry of Jesus and the Apostles.

2. It was intended primarily to confirm their radically new message about God and His kingdom.

3. It shows the heart of God for hurting people.

4. God has not changed (Mal. 3:6) and He still acts in love in healing.

5. There are examples where healing did not take place.

a. Paul, II Cor. 12:7-10

b. Trophimus, II Tim. 4:20

6. Sin and sickness were associated in the rabbis and James (cf. John. 9:2; James 5:13-18).

7. Healing is not a guarantee of the New Covenant. It is not part of the atonement described in Isaiah 53 and Psalm 103.

8. There is true mystery about why some are healed and some are not.

9. It is possible that although healing is present in every age, there was a significant increase during Jesus’ lifetime; this increase will occur again just before His return.

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SPECIAL TOPIC: THE HEART

The Greek term kardia is used in the Septuagint and NT to reflect the Hebrew term lēb (BDB 523). It is used in several ways (cf. Bauer, Arndt, Gingrich and Danker, A Greek-English Lexicon, pp. 403-404).

1. the center of physical life, a metaphor for the person (cf. Acts 14:17; II Cor. 3:2-3; James 5:5)

2. the center of spiritual life (i.e., moral)

a. God knows the heart (cf. Luke 16:15; Rom. 8:27; I Cor. 14:25; I Thess. 2:4; Rev. 2:23)

b. used of mankind’s spiritual life (cf. Matt. 15:18-19; 18:35; Rom. 6:17; I Tim. 1:5; II Tim. 2:22; I Pet. 1:22)

3. the center of the thought life (i.e., intellect, cf. Matt. 13:15; 24:48; Acts 7:23; 16:14; 28:27; Rom. 1:21; 10:6; 16:18; II Cor. 4:6; Eph. 1:18; 4:18; James 1:26; II Pet. 1:19; Rev. 18:7; heart is synonymous with mind in II Cor. 3:14-15 and Phil. 4:7)

4. the center of the volition (i.e., will, cf. Acts 5:4; 11:23; I Cor. 4:5; 7:37; II Cor. 9:7)

5. the center of the emotions (cf. Matt. 5:28; Acts 2:26,37; 7:54; 21:13; Rom. 1:24; II Cor. 2:4; 7:3; Eph. 6:22; Phil. 1:7)

6. unique place of the Spirit’s activity (cf. Rom. 5:5; II Cor. 1:22; Gal. 4:6 [i.e., Christ in our hearts, Eph. 3:17])

7. The heart is a metaphorical way of referring to the entire person (cf. Matt. 22:37, quoting Deut. 6:5). The thoughts, motives, and actions attributed to the heart fully reveal the type of individual. The OT has some striking usages of the terms

a. Gen. 6:6; 8:21, “God was grieved to His heart,” also notice Hosea 11:8-9

b. Deut. 4:29; 6:5, “with all your heart and all your soul”

c. Deut. 10:16, “uncircumcised heart” and Rom. 2:29

d. Ezek. 18:31-32, “a new heart”

e. Ezek. 36:26, “a new heart” vs. “a heart of stone”

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SPECIAL TOPIC: THE HEAVENS

In the OT the term “heaven” is usually plural (i.e., shamayim, BDB 1029). The Hebrew term means “height.” God dwells on high. This concept reflects the holiness and transcendence of God.

In Gen. 1:1 the plural “heavens and earth” has been viewed as God creating (1) the atmosphere above this planet or (2) a way of referring to all of reality (i.e., spiritual and physical). From this basic understanding other texts were cited as referring to levels of heaven: “heaven of heavens” (cf. Ps. 68:33) or “heaven and the heaven of heavens” (cf. Deut. 10:14; I Kgs. 8:27; Neh. 9:6; Ps. 148:4). The rabbis surmised that there might be

1. two heavens (i.e., R. Judah, Hagigah 12b)

2. three heavens (Test. Levi 2-3; Ascen. of Isa. 6-7; Midrash Tehillim on Ps. 114:1)

3. five heavens (III Baruch)

4. seven heavens (R. Simonb. Lakish; II Enoch 8; Ascen. of Isa. 9:7)

5. ten heavens (II Enoch 20:3b; 22:1)

All of these were meant to show God’s separation from physical creation and/or His transcendence. The most common number of heavens in rabbinical Judaism was seven. A. Cohen, Everyman’s Talmud (p. 30), says this was connected to the astronomical spheres, but I think it refers to seven being the perfect number (i.e., days of creation with seven representing God’s rest in Genesis 1).

Paul, in II Cor. 12:2, mentions the “third” heaven (Greek ouranos) as a way of identifying God’s personal, majestic presence. Paul had a personal encounter with God!

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SPECIAL TOPIC: THE FAMILY OF HEROD THE GREAT

A. Herod the Great

1. King of Judea (37-4 b.c.), an Idumean (from Edom), who, through political maneuvering and the support of Mark Antony, managed to be appointed ruler of a large part of Palestine (Canaan) by the Roman Senate in 40 b.c.

2. He is mentioned in Matt. 2:1-19 and Luke 1:5

3. His sons

a. Herod Philip (son of Mariamne of Simon)

(1) husband of Herodias (4 b.c. - a.d. 34)

(2) mentioned in Matt. 14:3; Mark 6:17

b. Herod Philip I (son of Cleopatra)

(1) Tetrarch of area north and west of the Sea of Galilee (4 b.c. - a.d. 34)

(2) mentioned in Luke 3:1

c. Herod Antipas

(1) Tetrarch of Galilee and Perea (4 b.c. - a.d. 39)

(2) mentioned in Matt. 14:1-12; Mark 6:14,29; Luke 3:1,19; 9:7-9; 13:31; 23:6-12,15; Acts 4:27; 13:1

d. Archelaus, Herod the Ethnarch

(1) ruler of Judea, Samaria, and Idumea (4 b.c. - a.d. 6)

(2) mentioned in Matt. 2:22

e. Aristobulus (son of Mariamne)

(1) mentioned as father of Herod Agrippa I who was

(a) King of Judea (a.d. 37-44)

(b) mentioned in Acts 12:1-24; 23:35

i his son was Herod Agrippa II

– Tetrarch of northern territory (a.d. 50-70)

ii his daughter was Bernice

– consort of her brother

– mentioned in Acts 25:13-26:32

iii his daughter was Drucilla

– wife of Felix

– mentioned Acts 24:24

B. Biblical References to the Herods

1. Herod the Tetrarch, mentioned in Matthew 14:1ff.; Luke 3:1; 9:7; 13:31, and 23:7, was the son of Herod the Great. At the death of Herod the Great, his kingdom was divided among

several of his sons. The term “Tetrarch” meant “leader of the fourth part.” This Herod was

known as Herod Antipas, which is the shortened form of Antipater. He controlled Galilee and Perea. This meant that much of Jesus’ ministry was in the territory of this second generation Idumean ruler.

2. Herodias was the daughter of Herod Antipas’ brother, Aristobulus. She had also been previously married to Philip, the half brother of Herod Antipas. This was not Philip the Tetrarch who controlled the area just north of Galilee, but the other brother Philip, who lived

in Rome. Herodias had one daughter by Philip. On Herod Antipas’ visit to Rome he met and was seduced by Heroditas, who was looking for political advancement. Therefore, Herod Antipas divorced his wife, who was a Nabatean princess, and Herodias divorced Philip so that she and Herod Antipas could be married. She was also the sister of Herod Agrippa I (cf. Acts 12).

3. We learn the name of Herodias’ daughter, Salome, from Flavius Josephus in his book The Antiquities of the Jews 8:5:4. She must have been between the ages of twelve and seventeen at this point. She was obviously controlled and manipulated by her mother. She later married Philip the Tetrarch, but was soon widowed.

4. About ten years after the beheading of John the Baptist, Herod Antipas went to Rome at the instigation of his wife Herodias to seek the title of king because Agrippa I, her brother, had received that title. But Agrippa I wrote Rome and accused Antipas of corroboration with the Parthians, a hated enemy of Rome from the Fertile Crescent (Mesopotamia). The Emperor apparently believed Agrippa I and Herod Antipas, along with his wife Herodias, was exiled to Spain.

5. It may make it easier to remember these different Herods as they are presented in the New Testament by remembering that Herod the Great killed the children in Bethlehem; Herod Antipas killed John the Baptist; Herod Agrippa I killed the Apostle James; and Herod Agrippa II heard Paul’s appeal recorded in the book of Acts.

C. For background information on the family of Herod the Great, consult the index of Flavius Josephus in Antiquities of the Jews.

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SPECIAL TOPIC: HERODIANS

The term is derived from their association with the ruling family of Herod.

The Herods were an Idumaen (Edom) family of rulers starting with Herod the Great. At his death several of his sons divided his kingdom. All the Herods were supporters of the Roman government. Their followers wanted to keep the political status quo. They preferred the rule of the Herods to direct Roman rule. This group was strictly political. They did not officially identify with the theology of the Pharisees or Sadducees.

I. The Family of the Herods

Herod the Great

A. King of Judea (37-4 b.c.)

B. Recorded in Matt. 2:1-19; Luke 1:5

C. His sons

1. Herod Philip (son of Mariamne of Simon)

a. Husband of Herodias (4 b.c. - a.d. 34)

b. Recorded in Matt. 14:3; Mark 6:17

2. Herod Philip (son of Cleopatra)

a. Tetrarch of area north and west of the Sea of Galilee (4 b.c. - a.d. 34)

b. Recorded in Luke 3:1

3. Herod Antipas

a. Tetrarch of Galilee and Perea (4 b.c. - a.d. 39)

b. Recorded in Matt. 14:1-12; Mark 6:14,29; Luke 3:19; 9:7-9; 13:31; 23:6-12,15; Acts 4:27; 13:1

4. Archelaus, Herod the Ethnarch

a. Ruler of Judea, Samaria, and Idumea (4 b.c. - a.d. 6)

b. Recorded in Matt. 2:22

5. Aristobulus (son of Mariamne)

a. Recorded as father of Herod Agrippa I

(1) King of Judea ( a.d. 37-44)

(2) Recorded in Acts 12:1-24; 23:35

(a) his son was Herod Agrippa II

– Tetrarch of northern territory ( a.d. 50-70)

(b) his daughter was Bernice

– consort of her brother

– Acts 25:13-26:32

– wife of Felix

– Acts 24:24

II. Biblical References to the Herods

A. Herod the Tetrarch who was mentioned in Matthew 14:1ff.; Luke 3:1; 9:7; 13:31, and 23:7, was the son of Herod the Great. At the death of Herod the Great, his kingdom was divided among three of his sons. The term “Tetrarch” meant “leader of the fourth part.” This Herod was known as Herod Antipas which is the shortened form of Antipater. He controlled Galilee and Perea. This meant that much of Jesus’ ministry was in the territory of this second generation Idumean ruler.

B. Herodias was the daughter of Herod Antipas’ brother, Aristobulus, which made her his niece. She had also been previously married to Philip, the half brother of Herod Antipas. This was not Philip the Tetrarch who controlled the area just north of Galilee, but the other brother Philip who lived in Rome. Herodias had one daughter by Philip (Salome). On Herod Antipas’ visit to Rome he met and was seduced by Heroditas who was looking for political advancement. Therefore, Herod Antipas divorced his wife, who was a Nabatean princess and Herodias divorced Philip so that she and Herod Antipas could be married. She was also the sister of Herod Agrippa I (cf. Acts 12).

C. We learn the name of Herodias’ daughter, Salome, from Flavius Josephus in his book The Antiquities of the Jews 18.5.4. She must have been between the ages of twelve and seventeen at

this point. She was obviously controlled and manipulated by her mother. She later married Philip the Tetrarch but was soon widowed.

D. About ten years after the beheading of John the Baptist, Herod Antipas went to Rome at the instigation of his wife Herodias to seek the title of king because Agrippa I, her brother, had received that title. But Agrippa I wrote Rome and accused Antipas of corroboration with the Parthians, a hated enemy of Rome from the Fertile Crescent (Mesopotamia). The Emperor apparently believed Agrippa I and Herod Antipas, along with his wife Herodias, was exiled to Spain.

E. It may make it easier to remember these different Herods as they are presented in the New Testament by remembering that Herod the Great killed the children in Bethlehem; Herod Antipas killed John the Baptist; Herod Agrippa I killed the Apostle James; and Herod Agrippa II heard Paul’s appeal recorded in the book of Acts.

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SPECIAL TOPIC: HOLY

I. The Old Testament

A. The etymology of the term kadosh (BDB 872) is uncertain, possibly Canaanite. It is possible that part of the root (i.e., kd) means “to divide.” This is the source of the popular definition “separated (from Canaanite culture, cf. Deut. 7:6; 14:2,21; 26:19) for God’s use.”

B. It relates to God’s presence in things, places, times, and persons. It is not used in Genesis, but becomes common in Exodus, Leviticus, and Numbers.

C. In the Prophetic literature (esp. Isaiah and Hosea) the personal element previously present, but not emphasized comes to the fore. It becomes a way of designating the essence of God (cf. Isa. 6:3). God is holy. His name representing His character is Holy. His people who are to reveal His character to a needy world are holy (if they obey the covenant in faith).

D. God’s mercy and love are inseparable from the theological concepts of covenants, justice, and essential character. Herein is the tension in God toward an unholy, fallen, rebellious humanity. There is a very interesting article on the relationship between God as “merciful” and God as “holy” in Robert B. Girdlestone, Synonyms of the Old Testament, pp. 112-113.

II. The New Testament

A. The writers of the NT (except Luke) are Hebrew thinkers, but are influenced by Koine Greek (i.e., the Septuagint). It is the Greek translation of the OT, not Classical Greek literature, thought, or religion that controls their vocabulary.

B. Jesus is holy because He is of God and like God (cf. Luke 1:35; 4:34; Acts 3:14; 4:27,30). He is the Holy and Righteous One (cf. Acts 3:14; 22:14). Jesus is holy because He is sinless (cf. John 8:46; II Cor. 5:21; Heb. 4:15; 7:26; I Pet. 1:19; 2:22; I John 3:5).

C. Because God is holy, His children are to be holy (cf. Lev. 11:44-45; 19:2; 20:7,26; Matt. 5:48; I Pet. 1:16). Because Jesus is holy, His followers are to be holy (cf. Rom. 8:28-29; II Cor. 3:18; Gal. 4:19; Eph. 1:4; I Thess. 3:13; 4:3; I Pet. 1:15). Christians are saved to serve in Christlikeness (holiness).

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SPECIAL TOPIC: THE HOLY ONE

“The Holy One” can refer to

1. God the Father (cf. numerous OT passages on “the Holy One of Israel”)

2. God the Son (cf. Mark 1:24; Luke 4:34; John 6:69; Acts 3:14)

3. God the Spirit (His title, “Holy Spirit” cf. John 1:33; 14:26; 20:22).

Acts 10:38 is a verse where all three persons of the Godhead are involved in anointing. Jesus was anointed (cf. Luke 4:18; Acts 4:17; 10:38). Here the concept is widened to include all believers (cf. I John 2:27). The Anointed One has become the anointed ones! This may be parallel to Antichrist and antichrists (cf. I John 2:18). The OT symbolic act of physical anointing with oil (cf. Exod. 29:7; 30:25; 37:29) relates to those who were called and equipped by God for a special task (i.e., ; prophets, priests, and kings). The word “Christ” is a translation of the Hebrew term “the anointed one” or Messiah.

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SPECIAL TOPIC: HOMOSEXUALITY

There is much modern cultural pressure to accept homosexuality as an appropriate alternate lifestyle. The Bible condemns it as a destructive lifestyle, out of the will of God for His creation.

1. it violates the command of Gen. 1 to be fruitful and multiply

2. it characterizes pagan worship and culture (cf. Lev. 18:22; 20:13; Rom. 1:26-27; and Jude 7)

3. it reveals a self-centered independence from God (cf. I Cor. 6:9-10)

However, before I leave this topic let me assert God’s love and forgiveness to all rebellious human beings. Christians have no right to act hatefully and arrogantly towards this particular sin, especially when it is obvious that all of us sin. Prayer, concern, testimony, and compassion do far more in this area than vehement condemnation. God’s Word and His Spirit will do the condemning if we let them. All sexual sins, not just this one, are an abomination to God and lead to judgment. Sexuality is a gift from God for mankind’s well-being, joy, and a stable society. But this powerful, God-given urge is often turned into rebellious, self-centered, pleasure-seeking, “more-for-me-at-any-cost” living (cf. Rom. 8:1-8; Gal. 6:7-8).

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SPECIAL TOPIC: HOPE

Paul used this term often in several different but related senses. Often it was associated with the consummation of the believer’s faith (e.g., I Tim. 1:1). This can be expressed as glory, eternal life, ultimate salvation, Second Coming, etc. The consummation is certain, but the time element is future and unknown. It was often associated with “faith” and “love” (cf. I Cor. 13:13; I Thess. 1:3; II Thess. 2:16). A partial list of some of Paul’s uses are:

1. The Second Coming, Gal. 5:5; Eph. 1:18; 4:4; Titus 2:13

2. Jesus is our hope, I Tim. 1:1

3. The believer to be presented to God, Col. 1:22-23; I Thess. 2:19

4. Hope is laid up in heaven, Col. 1:5

5. Trust in the gospel, Col. 1:23; I Thess. 2:19

6. Ultimate salvation, Col. 1:5; I Thess. 4:13; 5:8

7. The glory of God, Rom. 5:2, II Cor. 3:12; Col. 1:27

8. The salvation of the Gentiles by Christ, Col. 1:27

9. Assurance of salvation, I Thess. 5:8

10. Eternal life, Titus 1:2; 3:7

11. Results of Christian maturity, Rom. 5:2-5

12. Redemption of all creation, Rom. 8:20-22

13. Adoption’s consummation, Rom. 8:23-25

14. Title for God, Rom. 15:13

15. Paul’s desire for believers, II Cor. 1:7

16. OT as a guide to NT believers, Rom. 15:4

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SPECIAL TOPIC: HORNS USED BY ISRAEL

There are four words in Hebrew association with horns/trumpets:

1. “the ram’s horn” (BDB 901) – turned into an instrument of sound, cf. Josh. 6:5. This same word is used for the ram caught by his horns which Abraham will substitute for Isaac in Gen. 22:13.

2. “trumpet” (BDB 1051) – from Assyrian term for wild sheep (ibex). This is the horn that was used in Exod 19:16,19 at Mt. Sinai/Horeb. #1 and #2 are parallel in Josh. 6:5. It was used to communicate times to worship and time to fight (i.e., Jericho was both, cf. 6:4).

3. “ram’s horn” (BDB 385) – from Phoenician word for Ram (cf. 6:4,6,8,13). It also stands for the Year of Jubilee (cf. Lev. 25:13,28,40,50,52,54; 27:17,18,23,24).

(All of these first three seem interchangeable with no distinction intended. The Mishnah (RH 3.2) allowed any animal horn—sheep, goat, or antelope, but not from a cow.)

4. “trumpets” (BDB 348) – possibly from the verb “stretch out,” implying a straight bone (not curved as the animal horns). These were made of silver (after the shape and form of Egypt). These are used

a. with worship rites (cf. Num. 10:2,8,10)

b. for military purposes (cf. Num. 10:9; 31:6; Hosea 5:8; Ezra 3:10; Neh. 12:35,41)

c. for royal purposes (cf. II Kgs. 11:14)

One of these metal horns is depicted on the Arch of Titus in Rome; also Josephus describes them in Antiq. 3.12.6.

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SPECIAL TOPIC: THE HOUR

The term “hour” is used in several different ways in the Gospels, as

1. a time reference (cf. Matt. 8:13; Luke 7:21; John 11:9)

2. a metaphor for a time of testing and trial (cf. Matt. 10:19; Mark 13:11; Luke 12:12)

3. a metaphor for Jesus beginning His ministry (cf. John 2:4; 4:23)

4. a metaphor for the day of judgment (i.e., Second Coming, cf. Matt. 24:36,44; 25:13; Mark 13:32; John 5:25,28)

5. a metaphor for Jesus’ passion (cf. Matt. 26:45; Mark 14:35,41; John 7:30; 8:20; 12:23,27; 13:1; 16:32; 17:1)

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SPECIAL TOPIC: HUMAN SPEECH

I. OPENING THOUGHTS FROM PROVERBS

A. Language is part of the image of God in mankind (i.e., creation is spoken into existence and God talks to His human creation). It is a vital part of our personhood.

B. Human speech enables us to communicate to others how we feel about life. Therefore, it reveals who we really are (Pro. 18:2; 4:23 [20-27]). Speech is the acid test of the person (Pro. 23:7).

C. We are social creatures. We are concerned with acceptance and affirmation. We need it from God and from our fellow humans. Words have the power to meet these needs in both positive (Pro. 17:10) and negative (Pro. 12:18) ways.

D. There is tremendous power in human speech (Pro. 18:20-21)—power to bless and heal (Pro. 10:11,21) and power to curse and destroy (Pro. 11:9).

E. We reap what we sow (Pro. 12:14).

II. PRINCIPLES FROM PROVERBS

A. The negative and destructive potential of human speech

1. the words of evil men (1:11-19; 10:6; 11:9,11; 12:2-6)

2. the words of the adulteress (5:2-5; 6:24-35; 7:5ff; 9:13-18; 22:14)

3. the words of the liar (6:12-15,19; 10:18; 12:17-19,22; 14:5,25; 17:4; 19:5,9,28; 21:28; 24:28; 25:18; 26:23-28)

4. the words of the fool (10:10,14; 14:3; 15:14; 18:6-8)

5. the words of false witnesses (6:19; 12:17; 19:5,9,28; 21:28; 24:28; 25:18)

6. the words of a gossip (6:14,19; 11:13; 16:27-28; 20:19; 25:23; 26:20)

7. the words too quickly spoken (6:1-5; 12:18; 20:25; 29:20

8. the words of flattery (29:5)

9. too many words (10:14,19,23; 11:13; 13:3,16; 14:23; 15:2; 17:27-28; 18:2; 21:23; 29:20)

10. perverted words (17:20; 19:1)

B. the positive, healing and edifying potential of human speech

1. the words of the righteous (10:11,20-21,31-32; 12:14; 13:2; 15:23; 16:13; 18:20)

2. the words of the discerning (10:13; 11:12)

3. the words of knowledge (15:1,4,7,8; 20:15)

4. the words of healing (15:4)

5. the words of a gentle answer (15:1,4,18,23; 16:1; 25:15)

6. the words of a pleasant answer (12:25; 15:26,30; 16:24)

7. the words of the law (22:17-21)

III. THE OT PATTERN CONTINUES IN THE NT

A. Human speech enables us to communicate to others how we feel about life; therefore, it reveals who we really are (Matt. 12:33-37; 15:1-20; Mark 7:2-23).

B. We are social creatures. We are concerned with acceptance and affirmation. We need it from God and from our fellow man. Words have the power to meet these needs in both positive (II Tim. 3:15-17) and negative (James 3:2-12) ways.

C. There is tremendous power in human speech; power to bless (Eph. 4:29) and power to curse (James 3:9). We are responsible for what we say (Matt. 12:36-37; James 3:2-12).

D. We will be judged by our words (Matt. 12:33-37; Luke 6:39-45) as well as our deeds (Matt. 25:31-46). We reap what we sow (Gal. 6:7).

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SPECIAL TOPIC: HUNGER

I. Introduction

A. Hunger is one ever-present reminder of the fallen condition of humanity and creation.

B. hunger is one aspect of the problem of evil and suffering. It is directly attributed to mankind, not God. Although God used agricultural blessings or cursings as a way to reward and punish His Covenant People (Deuteronomy 27-28), this has not been true for unbelievers in general (Matt. 5:45). Hunger is one more example of greedy, selfish, materialistic humanity. The problem of hunger is not really one of food, but of human motivation and priorities.

C. Hunger is an opportunity for redeemed humanity to reflect God’s love. Believers’ reactions to physical need in the Church and in the world shows who we really are.

II. Biblical Material

A. Old Testament

1. Moses

a. one of the three possible tithes in ancient Israel was for the poor (Deut. 14:28-29)

b. the Law provided special provisions for the poor to eat (Exod. 23:11; Lev. 19:10; 23:22; Deut. 24:19-22)

c. the Law provided for special, inexpensive sacrifices for the poor (Lev. 14:21)

d. Israel was to have a compassionate and open-handed attitude toward the poor and needy (Deut. 15:7-11, cf. Job 29:16; 30:25; 31:16-23)

2. Wisdom Literature

a. There were special blessings reserved for those who helped the poor (Ps. 41:4)

b. To help the poor was to help God (Pro. 14:31; 17:5; 19:17)

3. The Prophets

a. God demanded worship to Him in the form of social justice and compassion to the needy (Isa. 58:6-7; Mic. 6:8)

b. One sign of God’s message was that it was proclaimed to the poor and needy (Isa. 61:1-2)

c. God’s prophets railed against social exploitation (Amos 2:6-8; 5:10-13; Micah)

B. New Testament

1. The Gospels

a. Help for the poor is admonished (Mark 10:21; Luke 3:11)

b. Judgment is based on our social love towards others in Jesus name. In fact, to help others is to help Jesus (Matt. 25:31-46)

c. Mark 14:7 has been badly misunderstood when it is asserted that this reflects Jesus’ lack of concern for the poor. This verse is meant to emphasize His uniqueness, not a put-down to the poor.

d. Isaiah 61:1-2 reflects that the recipients of God’s message will be the socially ostracized (Luke 4:18; 7:22; 14:21).

2. Paul

a. Paul learned from Antioch of Syria the concept of a special love offering for the poor of the Jerusalem church (Rom. 15:26; I Cor. 16:1; II Cor. 8:4,6,19; Gal. 2).

b. Paul emphasizes grace, faith, and works (Eph. 2:8-10).

3. James (NT Wisdom Literature)

a. Faith in God through Christ without social concern is sick (James 2:14-17).

b. He even says that faith without works is dead!

4. John

a. The book of I John asserts that Christian assurance is based on a changed life of faith and service (I John 3:17-18).

III. Conclusion

A. Human misery and need are related to humanity’s sin. There are several aspects to hunger:

1. foolish behavior (Prov. 19:15)

2. punishment of God (Deut. 27-28)

3. related to spiritual service (II Cor. 11:27)

4. cultural circumstances (greed, conception, etc).

5. material circumstances (famine, floods, hail, etc).

B. God really cares for people. He loves those in need in a unique way!

C. The Church in action is God’s answer to human need (physical and spiritual)

1. direct, personal action

2. corporate parish/church action

3. political organization for change

D. We must critically evaluate our culture and personal priorities in light of the Scriptures

(II Corinthians 8-9).

E. We need our eyes, hearts, and hands opened to human need at home and abroad; in the church and in the world.

F. Help must be related to who we are in Christ in light of the Great Commission (Matt. 28:18-20). Help must be physical and spiritual.

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SPECIAL TOPIC: HYPOCRITES

This compound term is literally translated “to judge under.” It could have meant (1) a theatrical word for speaking from behind a mask or (2) its earlier usage was “to over interpret.” In this context it referred to religious play-acting.

Pharisees acted out religious rites and rituals in order to be praised by other humans, not in order to please God (although I am sure that was one of several motives):

1. gave alms, not only to help the poor, but to be praised by humans, Matt. 6:2

2. prayed in the synagogue and in public to be seen by humans, Matt. 6:5

3. when they fasted they looked disheveled so others would be impressed with their spirituality, Matt. 6:16

4. they tithed the kitchen supplies, but missed the weighty matters of the Law, Matt. 23:23

5. they cleaned the outside of the cup, but not the inside, Matt. 23:25 (cf. Mark 7:1-8)

6. they were self-righteous, Matt. 23:29-30

7. they prevented others from entering the Kingdom, Matt. 23:13-15

8. they tried to trap Jesus with tricky questions, not a search for true wisdom, Matt. 22:15-22

9. they have a special place in hell, Matt. 24:51

10. they were a whitewashed tomb full of uncleanness, Matt. 23:27 (cf. Dictionary of Biblical Imagery, p. 415)

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SPECIAL TOPIC: ILLUMINATION

God has acted in the past to clearly reveal Himself to mankind. In theology this is called revelation. He selected certain men to record and explain this self-revelation. In theology this is called inspiration. He has sent His Spirit to help readers understand His word. In theology this is called illumination. The problem arises when we assert that the Spirit is involved in understanding God’s word—so why are there so many interpretations of it?

Part of the problem lies in the reader’s pre-understanding or personal experiences. Often a personal agenda is addressed by using the Bible in a proof-text or atomistic fashion. Often a theological grid is imposed over the Bible allowing it to speak only in certain areas and in selected ways. Illumination simply cannot be equated with inspiration although the Holy Spirit is involved in each.

The best approach may be to attempt to assert the central idea of a paragraph, not interpret every detail of the text. It is the topical thought which conveys the original author’s central truth. Outlining the book or literary unit helps one follow the intent of the original inspired author. No interpreter is inspired. We cannot reproduce the biblical writer’s method of interpretation. We can and must attempt to understand what they were saying to their day and then communicate that truth to our own day. There are parts of the Bible that are ambiguous or hidden (until a certain time or period). There will always be disagreements on some texts and subjects but we must state clearly the central truths and allow freedom for individual interpretations within the boundary of the original author’s intent. Interpreters must walk in the light they have, always being open to more light from the Bible and the Spirit. God will judge us based on the level of our understanding and how we live out that understanding.

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SPECIAL TOPIC: INTERCESSORY PRAYER

I. Introduction

A. Prayer is significant because of Jesus’ example

1. personal prayer, Mark 1:35; Luke 3:21; 6:12; 9:29; 22:29-46

2. cleansing of the Temple, Matt. 21:13; Mark 11:17; Luke 19:46

3. Model Prayer, Matt. 6:5-13; Luke 11:2-4

B. Prayer is putting into tangible action our belief in a personal, caring God who is present, willing, and able to act on our behalf and others, through our prayers.

C. God has personally limited Himself to act on the prayers of His children in many areas (cf. James 4:2)

D. The major purpose of prayer is our fellowship and time with the Triune God.

E. The scope of prayer is anything or anyone that concerns believers. We may pray once, believing, or over and over again as the thought or concern returns.

F. Prayer can involve several elements

1. praise and adoration of the Triune God

2. thanksgiving to God for His presence, fellowship, and provisions

3. confession of our sinfulness, both past and present

4. petition of our sensed needs or desires

5. intercession where we hold the needs of others before the Father

G. Intercessory prayer is a mystery. God loves those for whom we pray much more than we do, yet our prayers often effect a change, response, or need, not only in ourselves, but in them.

II. Biblical Material

A. Old Testament

1. Some examples of intercessory prayer:

a. Abraham pleading for Sodom, Gen. 18:22ff

b. Moses’ prayers for Israel

(1) Exodus 5:22-23

(2) Exodus 32:31ff

(3) Deuteronomy 5:5

(4) Deuteronomy 9:18,25ff

c. Samuel prays for Israel:

(1) I Samuel 7:5-6,8-9

(2) I Samuel 12:16-23

(3) I Samuel 15:11

d. David for his child, II Samuel 12:16-18

2. God is looking for intercessors, Isaiah 59:16

3. Known, unconfessed sin or an unrepentant attitude affects our prayers

a. Psalm 66:18

b. Proverbs 28:9

c. Isaiah 59:1-2; 64:7

B. New Testament

1. The Son and Spirit’s intercessory ministry

a. Jesus

(1) Romans 8:34

(2) Hebrews 7:25

(3) I John 2:1

b. Holy Spirit, Romans 8:26-27

2. Paul’s intercessory ministry

a. Prays for the Jews

(1) Romans 9:1ff

(2) Romans 10:1

b. Prays for the churches

(1) Romans 1:9

(2) Ephesians 1:16

(3) Philippians 1:3-4,9

(4) Colossians 1:3,9

(5) I Thessalonians 1:2-3

(6) II Thessalonians 1:11

(7) II Timothy 1:3

(8) Philemon, v. 4

c. Paul asked the churches to pray for him

(1) Romans 15:30

(2) II Corinthians 1:11

(3) Ephesians 6:19

(4) Colossians 4:3

(5) I Thessalonians 5:25

(6) II Thessalonians 3:1

3. The church’s intercessory ministry

a. Pray for one another

(1) Ephesians 6:18

(2) I Timothy 2:1

(3) James 5:16

b. Prayer requested for special groups

(1) our enemies, Matt. 5:44

(2) Christian workers, Hebrews 13:18

(3) rulers, I Timothy 2:2

(4) the sick, James 5:13-16

(5) backsliders, I John 5:16

III. Conditions for answered prayer

A. Our relationship to Christ and the Spirit

1. Abide in Him, John 15:7

2. In His name, John 14:13,14; 15:16; 16:23-24

3. In the Spirit, Ephesians 6:18; Jude 20

4. According to God’s will, Matthew 6:10; I John 3:22; 5:14-15

B. Motives

1. Not wavering, Matthew 21:22; James 1:6-7

2. Humility and repentance, Luke 18:9-14

3. Asking amiss, James 4:3

4. Selfishness, James 4:2-3

C. Other aspects

1. Perseverance

a. Luke 18:1-8

b. Colossians 4:2

2. Kept on asking

a. Matthew 7:7-8

b. Luke 11:5-13

c. James 1:5

3. Discord at home, I Peter 3:7

4. Free from known sin

a. Psalm 66:18

b. Proverbs 28:9

c. Isaiah 59:1-2

d. Isaiah 64:7

IV. Theological Conclusion

A. What a privilege. What an opportunity. What a duty and responsibility

B. Jesus is our example. The Spirit is our guide. The Father is eagerly waiting.

C. It could change you, your family, your friends, and the world.

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SPECIAL TOPIC: ISCARIOT

The etymology of this word is somewhat obscure; however, there are several possibilities:

1. Kerioth, a city of Judah (cf. Josh. 15:25)

2. Kartan, a city in Galilee (cf. Josh. 21:32)

3. Karōides, a date palm grove in Jerusalem or Jericho

4. scortea, an apron or leather bag (cf. John 13:29)

5. ascara, strangling (Hebrew) from Matt. 27:5

6. an assassin’s knife (Greek), meaning he was a Zealot like Simon (cf. Luke 6:15)

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SPECIAL TOPIC: ISRAEL (the name)

I. The Name’s meaning is uncertain (BDB 975).

A. El Persists

B. Let El Persist (jussive)

C. El Preserves

D. Let El Contend

E. El Strives

F. He who strives with God (Gen. 32:28)

II. Usages in the OT

A. Jacob’s name (supplanter, heel grabber, BDB 784, cf. Gen. 25:26) is changed after wrestling with the spiritual personage at the river Jabbok (cf. Gen. 32:22-32; Exod. 32:13). Often the meanings of Hebrew names are sound plays, not etymologies (cf. 32:28). Israel becomes his name (e.g., Gen. 35:10).

B. It came to be used as a collective name for all of his twelve sons (e.g., Gen. 32:32; 49:16; Exod. 1:7; 4:22; 28:11; Deut. 3:18; 10:6).

C. It came to designate the nation formed by the twelve tribes before the exodus (cf. Gen. 47:27; Exod. 4:22; 5:2) and after (cf. Deut. 1:1; 18:6; 33:10).

D. After the united monarchy of Saul, David, and Solomon the tribes split under Rehoboam (cf. I Kings 12).

1. the distinction starts even before the official split (e.g., II Sam. 3:10; 5:5; 20:1; 24:9; I Kgs. 1:35; 4:20)

2. designates the northern tribes until the fall of Samaria to Assyria in 722 b.c. (cf. II Kings 17).

E. Used of Judah in a few places (e.g., Isaiah 1; Micah 1:15-16).

F. After the Assyrian and Babylonian exiles it became again the collective name for all of Jacob’s descendants (e.g., Isa. 17:7,9; Jer. 2:4; 50:17,19).

G. Used of laity in contradistinction from priests (cf. I Chr. 9:2; Ezra 10:25; Neh. 11:3).

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SPECIAL TOPIC: JAMES, THE HALF BROTHER OF JESUS

A. He was called “James the Just” and later nicknamed “camel knees” because he constantly prayed on his knees (from Hegesippus, quoted by Eusebius).

B. James was not a believer until after the resurrection (cf. Mark 3:21; John 7:5). Jesus appeared to him personally after the resurrection (cf. I Cor. 15:7).

C. He was present in the upper room with the disciples (cf. Acts 1:14) and possibly also there when the Spirit came on Pentecost.

D. He was married (cf. I Cor. 9:5).

E. He is referred to by Paul as a pillar (possibly an apostle, cf. Gal. 1:19) but was not one of the Twelve (cf. Gal. 2:9; Acts 12:17; 15:13ff).

F. In Antiquities of the Jews, 20.9.1, Josephus says that he was stoned in a.d. 62 by orders from the Sadducees of the Sanhedrin, while another tradition (the second century writers, Clement of Alexandria or Hegesippus) says he was pushed off the wall of the Temple.

G. For many generations after Jesus’ death a relative of Jesus was appointed leader of the church in Jerusalem.

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SPECIAL TOPIC: JESUS AND THE SPIRIT

There is a fluidity between the work of the Spirit and the Son. G. Campbell Morgan said the best name for the Spirit is “the other Jesus” (however, they are distinct, eternal persons). The following is an outline comparison of the work and titles of the Son and Spirit.

1. Spirit called “Spirit of Jesus” or similar expressions (cf. Rom. 8:9; II Cor. 3:17; Gal. 4:6; I Pet. 1:11).

2. Both called by the same terms

a. “truth”

1) Jesus (John 14:6)

2) Spirit (John 14:17; 16:13)

b. “advocate”

1) Jesus (I John 2:1)

2) Spirit (John 14:16,26; 15:26; 16:7)

c. “Holy”

1) Jesus (Luke 1:35; 4:34)

2) Spirit (Luke 1:35)

3. Both indwell believers

a. Jesus (Matt. 28:20; John 14:20,23; 15:4-5; Rom. 8:10; II Cor. 13:5; Gal. 2:20; Eph. 3:17: Col. 1:27)

b. Spirit (John 14:16-17; Rom. 8:9,11; I Cor. 3:16; 6:19; II Tim. 1:14)

c. Father (John 14:23; II Cor. 6:16)

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SPECIAL TOPIC: JESUS AS HIGH PRIEST

Hebrews is unique in the NT in calling Jesus high priest. There are several places in the OT where the Messiah is described in priestly terms (cf. Ps. 110:4; Zechariah 3-4). This theme will be developed fully in chapters 4:14-5:10 and 6:13-7:28.

Hebrews describes Jesus’ High Priestly work in several ways.

1. atonement for sin (cf. 2:17; 7:27; 9:14)

2. strength for those tempted by sin (cf. 2:18)

3. grace in time of need (cf. 4:15-16)

4. brings eternal life (cf. 5:9-10)

5. intercession on believers’ behalf (cf. 7:25)

6. confidence to approach a holy God (cf. 10:19-21)

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SPECIAL TOPIC: JESUS THE NAZARENE

There are several different Greek terms that the NT uses to speak of Jesus.

A. NT Terms

1. Nazareth – the city in Galilee (cf. Luke 1:26; 2:4,39,51; 4:16; Acts 10:38). This city is not mentioned in contemporary sources, but has been found in later inscriptions.

For Jesus to be from Nazareth was not a compliment (cf. John 1:46). The sign over Jesus’ cross which included this place name was a sign of Jewish contempt.

2. Nazarēnos – seems to also refer to a geographical location (cf. Luke 4:34; 24:19).

3. Nazōraios – may refer to a city, but could also be a play on the Hebrew Messianic term “Branch” (netzer, cf. Isa. 4:2; 11:1; 53:2; Jer. 23:5; 33:15; Zech. 3:8; 6:12; in the NT, Rev. 22:16). Luke uses this of Jesus in 18:37 and Acts 2:22; 3:6; 4:10; 6:14; 22:8; 24:5; 26:9.

4. Related to #3 nāzir, which means “consecrated one by means of a vow.”

B. Historical usages outside the NT.

1. It denoted a Jewish (pre-Christian) heretical group (Aramaic nāsōrayyā).

2. It was used in Jewish circles to describe believers in Christ (cf. Acts 24:5,14; 28:22, nosri).

3. It became the regular term to denote believers in the Syrian (Aramaic) churches. “Christian” was used in the Greek churches to denote believers.

4. Sometime after the fall of Jerusalem, the Pharisees reorganized at Jamnia and instigated a formal separation between the synagogue and the church. An example of the type of curse formulas against Christians is found in “the Eighteen Benedictions” from Berakoth 28b-29a, which calls the believers “Nazarenes.”

“May the Nazarenes and heretics disappear in a moment; they shall be erased from the book of life and not be written with the faithful.”

5. It was used by Justin Martyr, Dial. 126:1, who used Isaiah’s netzer of Jesus.

C. Author’s opinion

I am surprised by so many spellings of the term, although I know this is not unheard of in the OT as “Joshua” has several different spellings in Hebrew. The following items cause me to remain uncertain as to its precise meaning:

1. the close association with the Messianic term “Branch” (netzer) or the similar term nāzir (one consecrated by means of a vow)

2. the negative connotation of Galilee

3. little or no contemporary attestation to the city of Nazareth in Galilee

4. it coming from the mouth of a demon in an eschatological sense (i.e. “Have you come to destroy us?”).

For a full bibliography of studies of this word group, see Colin Brown (ed.), New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology, vol. 2, p. 346 or Raymond E. Brown, Birth, pp. 209-213, 223-225.

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SPECIAL TOPIC: JESUS’ POST RESURRECTION APPEARANCES

Jesus showed himself to several people to confirm His resurrection.

1. the women at the tomb, Matt. 28:9

2. the eleven disciples, Matt. 28:16

3. Simon, Luke 24:34

4. two men, Luke 24:15

5. disciples, Luke 24:36

6. Mary Magdalene, John 20:15

7. ten disciples, John 20:17

8. eleven disciples, John 20:26

9. seven disciples, John 21:1

10. Cephas (Peter), I Cor. 15:5

11. the Twelve (Apostles), I Cor. 15:5

12. 500 brethren, I Cor. 15:6 (Matt. 28:16-17)

13. James (His earthly family), I Cor. 15:7

14. all the apostles, I Cor. 15:7

15. Paul, I Cor. 15:8 (Acts 9)

Obviously some of these refer to the same appearance. Jesus wanted them to know for sure He was alive!

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SPECIAL TOPIC: JESUS’ RETURN

The NT as a whole is written within the worldview of the OT which asserted

1. a current evil, rebellious age

2. a coming new age of righteousness

3. brought about by the Spirit’s agency through the work of the Messiah (Anointed One).

The theological assumption of progressive revelation is required because the NT authors slightly modify Israel’s expectation. Instead of a military, nationalistic (Israel) coming of the Messiah, there are two comings. The first coming is the incarnation of deity in the conception and birth of Jesus of Nazareth. He came as the non-military, non-judicial “suffering servant” of Isaiah 53; and the humble rider on the colt of a donkey (not a war horse or kingly mule) of Zech. 9:9. The first coming inaugurated the New Messianic Age, the Kingdom of God on earth. In one sense the Kingdom is here, but of course, in another it is still far off. It is this tension between the two comings of the Messiah which, in a sense, is the overlapping of the two Jewish ages that was unseen, or at least unclear, from the OT. In reality, this dual coming emphasizes YHWH’s commitment to redeem all humanity (cf. Gen. 3:15; 12:3; Exod. 19:5 and the preaching of the prophets, especially Isaiah and Jonah).

The church is not waiting for the fulfillment of OT prophecy because most prophecies refer to the first coming (cf. How to Read the Bible for All Its Worth, pp. 165-166). What believers do anticipate is the glorious coming of the resurrected King of King and Lord of Lords, the expected historical fulfillment of the new age of righteousness on earth as it is in heaven (cf. Matt. 6:10). The OT presentations were not inaccurate, but incomplete. He will come again just as the prophets predicted in the judicial power and material authority of YHWH.

The Second Coming is not a biblical term, but the concept is the worldview and framework of the entire NT. God will set it all straight. Fellowship between God and mankind made in His image will be restored. Evil will be judged and removed. God’s purposes will not, cannot fail!

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SPECIAL TOPIC: JOHN 1 COMPARED TO I JOHN 1

Gospel Letter

1. In the beginning (1:1,2) From the beginning (1:1)

2. Word (logos) (1:1) Word (logos) (1:1)

3. Life (zōē) (1:4) Life (zōē) (1:1,2)

4. Light in Jesus (1:4) Light in God (1:5)

5. Light revealed (1:4) Light revealed (1:4)

6. Darkness (1:5) Darkness (1:5)

7. Witness to light (1:6-8) Witness to light (1:3,5)

8. Humans brought to God (1:7,12-13) Humans brought to God (1:3)

9. Beheld His glory (1:14) Beheld His glory (1:1-3)

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SPECIAL TOPIC: THE LORD’S SUPPER IN JOHN 6 (MY COMMENTARY, VOL. 4, JOHN)

A. The Gospel of John does not record the Lord’s Supper itself, although chapters 13-17 record the dialogue and prayer in the Upper Room. This omission may be intentional. The church of the late first century began to view the ordinances in a sacramental sense. They saw them as channels of grace. John may have been reacting to this developing sacramental view by not recording Jesus’ baptism or the Lord’s Supper.

B. John 6 is in the context of the feeding of the five thousand. However, many use it to teach a sacramental view of the Eucharist. This is the source of the Roman Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation (vv. 53-56).

The question over how chapter 6 relates to the Eucharist shows the dual nature of the Gospels. Obviously, the Gospels relate to Jesus’ words and life, yet they were written decades later and expressed the individual authors’ community of faith. So there are three levels of authorial intent: (1) the Spirit; (2) Jesus and the original hearers; and (3) the Gospel writers and their readers. How is one to interpret? The only verifiable method must be a contextual, grammatical, lexical approach, informed by a historical setting.

C. We must remember that the audience was Jewish and the cultural background was the rabbinical expectation of the Messiah being a super-Moses (cf. vv. 30-31), especially in regard to the Exodus experiences like “manna.” The rabbis would use Ps. 72:16 as a proof text. Jesus’ unusual statements (cf. vv. 60-62, 66), were meant to counteract the crowd’s false Messianic expectations (cf. vv. 14-15).

D. The early church fathers did not all agree that this passage refers to the Lord’s Supper. Clement of Alexandria, Origen and Eusebius never mention the Lord’s Supper in their discussions on this passage.

E. The metaphors of this passage are very similar to Jesus’ words used with the “woman at the well” in John 4. Earthly water and bread are used as metaphors of eternal life and spiritual realities.

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F. This multiplying of bread is the only miracle recorded in all four Gospels!

SPECIAL TOPIC: JOHN’S USE OF THE VERB “BELIEVE” (the noun is rare)

John primarily combines “believe” with a preposition

1. eis means “into.” This unique construction emphasizes believers putting their trust/faith in Jesus

a. into His name (John 1:12; 2:23; 3:18; I John 5:13)

b. into Him (John 2:11; 3:15,18; 4:39; 6:40; 7:5,31,39,48; 8:30; 9:36; 10:42; 11:45,48; 12:37,42)

c. into Me (John 6:35; 7:38; 11:25,26; 12:44,46; 14:1,12; 16:9; 17:20)

d. into the One He has sent (John 6:28-29)

e. into the Son (John 3:36; 9:35; I John 5:10)

f. into Jesus (John 12:11)

g. into Light (John 12:36)

h. into God (John 12:44; 14:1)

2. ev means “in” as in John 3:15 (Mark 1:15)

3. the dative case with no preposition (John 4:50; I John 3:23; 5:10)

4. hoti, which means “believe that,” gives content as to what to believe. Some examples are

a. Jesus is the Holy One of God (6:69)

b. Jesus is the I Am (8:24)

c. Jesus in the Father and the Father in Him (10:38)

d. Jesus is the Christ (11:27; 20:31)

e. Jesus is the Son of God (11:27; 20:31)

f. Jesus was sent by the Father (11:42; 17:8,21)

g. Jesus is one with the Father (14:10-11)

h. Jesus came from the Father (16:27,30)

i. Jesus identified Himself in the covenant name of the Father, “I am” (8:24; 13:19)

Biblical faith is in both a person and a message! It is evidenced by obedience, love, and perseverance.

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SPECIAL TOPIC: SHOULD CHRISTIANS JUDGE ONE ANOTHER?

This issue must be dealt with in two ways.

1. believers are admonished not to judge one another (cf. Matt. 7:1-5; Luke 6:37,42; Rom. 2:1-11; James 4:11-12)

2. believers are admonished to evaluate leaders (cf. Matt. 7:6,15-16; I Cor. 14:29; I Thess. 5:21; I Tim. 3:1-13; and I John 4:1-6)

Some criteria for proper evaluation may be helpful.

1. evaluation should be for the purpose of affirmation (cf. I John 4:1 – “test” with a view toward approval)

2. evaluation should be done in humility and gentleness (cf. Gal. 6:1)

3. evaluation must not focus on personal preference issues (cf. Rom. 14:1-23; I Cor. 8:1-13; 10:23-33)

4. evaluation should identify those leaders who have “no handle for criticism” from within the church or the community (cf. I Timothy 3).

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SPECIAL TOPIC: THE KERYGMA OF THE EARLY CHURCH

A. The promises by God made in the Old Testament have now been fulfilled with the coming of Jesus the Messiah (Acts 2:30; 3:19,24; 10:43; 26:6-7,22; Rom. 1:2-4; I Tim. 3:16; Heb. 1:1-2; I Peter 1:10-12; 2 Peter 1:18-19).

B. Jesus was anointed as Messiah by God at His baptism (Acts 10:38).

C. Jesus began His ministry in Galilee after His baptism (Acts 10:37).

D. His ministry was characterized by doing good and performing mighty works by means of the power of God (Mark 10:45; Acts 2:22; 10:38).

E. The Messiah was crucified according to the eternal purpose of God (Mark 10:45; John 3:16; Acts 2:23; 3:13-15,18; 4:11; 10:39; 26:23; Rom. 8:34; I Cor. 1:17-18; 15:3; Gal. 1:4; Heb. 1:3; I Peter 1:2,19; 3:18; I John 4:10).

F. He was raised from the dead and appeared to His disciples (Acts 2:24,31-32; 3:15,26; 10:40-41; 17:31; 26:23; Rom. 8:34; 10:9; I Cor. 15:4-7,12ff; I Thess. 1:10; I Tim. 3:16; I Peter 1:2; 3:18,21).

G. Jesus was exalted by God and given the name “Lord” (Acts 2:25-29,33-36; 3:13; 10:36; Rom. 8:34; 10:9; I Tim. 3:16; Heb. 1:3; I Peter 3:22).

H. He gave the Holy Spirit to form the new community of God (Acts 1:8; 2:14-18,38-39; 10:44-47; I Peter 1:12).

I. He will come again for judgment and the restoration of all things (Acts 3:20-21; 10:42; 17:31; I Cor. 15:20-28; I Thess. 1:10).

J. All who hear the message should repent and be baptized (Acts 2:21,38; 3:19; 10:43,47-48; 17:30; 26:20; Rom. 1:17; 10:9; I Peter 3:21).

This schema served as the essential proclamation of the early church, though different authors of the New Testament may leave out a portion or emphasize other particulars in their preaching. The entire Gospel of Mark closely follows the Petrine aspect of the kerygma. Mark is traditionally seen as structuring Peter’s sermons, preached in Rome, into a written Gospel. Both Matthew and Luke follow Mark’s basic structure.

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SPECIAL TOPIC: THE KINGDOM OF GOD

In the OT YHWH was thought of as the King of Israel (cf. I Sam. 8:7; Ps. 10:16; 24:7-9; 29:10; 44:4; 89:18; 95:3; Isa. 43:15; 44:4,6) and the Messiah as the ideal king (cf. Ps. 2:6; Isa. 9:6-7; 11:1-5). With the birth of Jesus at Bethlehem (6-4 b.c.) the kingdom of God broke into human history with new power and redemption (new covenant, cf. Jer. 31:31-34; Ezek. 36:27-36). John the Baptist proclaimed the nearness of the kingdom (cf. Matt. 3:2; Mark 1:15). Jesus clearly taught that the kingdom was present in Himself and His teachings (cf. Matt. 4:17,23; 9:35; 10:7; 11:11-12; 12:28;16:19; Mark 12:34; Luke 10:9,11; 11:20; 12:31-32; 16:16; 17:21). Yet the kingdom is also future (cf. Matt. 16:28; 24:14; 26:29; Mark 9:1; Luke 21:31; 22:16,18).

In the Synoptic parallels in Mark and Luke we find the phrase, “the kingdom of God.” This common topic of Jesus’ teachings involved the present reign of God in human’s hearts, which one day will be consummated over all the earth. This is reflected in Jesus’ prayer in Matt. 6:10. Matthew, written to Jews, preferred the phrase that did not use the name of God (Kingdom of Heaven), while Mark and Luke, writing to Gentiles, used the common designation, employing the name of deity.

This is such a key phrase in the Synoptic Gospels. Jesus’ first and last sermons, and most of His parables, dealt with this topic. It refers to the reign of God in human hearts now! It is surprising that John uses this phrase only twice (and never in Jesus’ parables). In John’s gospel “eternal life”is a key metaphor.

The tension with this phrase is caused by the two comings of Christ. The OT focused only on one coming of God’s Messiah—a military, judgmental, glorious coming—but the NT shows that He came the first time as the Suffering Servant of Isaiah 53 and the humble king of Zech. 9:9. The two Jewish ages, the age of wickedness and the new age of righteousness, overlap. Jesus currently reigns in the hearts of believers, but will one day reign over all creation. He will come like the OT predicted! Believers live in “the already” versus “the not yet” of the kingdom of God (cf. Gordon D. Fee and Douglas Stuart’s How to Read The Bible For All Its Worth, pp. 131-134).

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SPECIAL TOPIC: KOINŌNIA

The term “fellowship” (koinōnia) means

1. close association with a person

a. with the Son (cf. I John 1:6; I Cor. 1:9)

b. with the Spirit (cf. II Cor. 13:13; Phil. 2:1)

c. with the Father and the Son (cf. I John 1:3)

d. with other covenant brothers/sisters (cf. I John 1:7; Acts 2:42; Gal. 2:9; Philemon 17)

2. close association with things or groups

a. with the gospel (cf. Phil. 1:5; Philemon 6)

b. with the blood of Christ (cf. I Cor. 10:16)

c. not with darkness (cf. II Cor. 6:14)

d. with suffering (cf. Phil. 3:10; 4:14; I Pet. 4:13)

3. gift or contribution done in generous fashion (cf. Rom. 12:13; 15:26; II Cor. 8:4; 9:13; Phil. 4:15; Heb. 13:16)

4. God’s gift of grace through Christ, which restores mankind’s fellowship with Him and his brothers and sisters

This asserts the horizontal relationship (human to human) that is brought about by the vertical relationship (human to Creator). It also emphasizes the need for and joy of Christian community. The verb tense stresses the start and continuance of this experience of community (cf. 1:3 [twice],6,7). Christianity is corporate!

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SPECIAL TOPIC: PAUL’S USE OF KOSMOS (WORLD)

Paul uses the term kosmos in several ways.

1. all the created order (cf. Rom. 1:20; Eph. 1:4; I Cor. 3:22; 8:4,5)

2. this planet (cf. II Cor. 1:17; Eph. 1:10; Col. 1:20; I Tim. 1:15; 3:16; 6:7)

3. humans (cf. 1:27-28; 4:9,13; Rom. 3:6,19; 11:15; II Cor. 5:19; Col. 1:6)

4. humans organized and functioning apart from God (cf. 1:20-21; 2:12; 3:19; 11:32; Gal. 4:3; Eph. 2:2,12; Phil. 2:15; Col. 2:8,20-24). It is very similar to John’s usage (i.e., I John 2:15-17)

5. the current world structures (cf. 7:29-31; Gal. 6:14, similar to Phil. 3:4-9, where Paul describes Jewish structures)

In some ways these overlap and it is hard to categorize every usage. This term, like so many in Paul’s thought, must be defined by the immediate context and not a pre-set definition. Paul’s terminology was fluid (cf. James Stewart’s A Man in Christ). He was not attempting to set up a systematic theology, but proclaim Christ. He changes everything!

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SPECIAL TOPIC: KTISIS

This term, ktisis, is used in a variety of senses in the NT. The lexicon by Louw and Nida lists the following possibilities.

1. creation (the act of creation, cf. Mark 13:19; Rom. 1:20; Eph. 3:9)

2. creature (that which is created alive, cf. Mark 10:6; Rom. 1:25; 8:39; Col. 1:15;23)

3. universe (all that was created, cf. Mark 13:19; Rom. 8:20; Heb. 9:11)

4. institution (cf. I Pet. 2:13)

5. authority (cf. I Pet. 2:13)

Paul also personifies creation in Rom. 8:18-25. He characterizes God’s new creation, new age, age of the Spirit in II Cor. 5:17 and Gal. 6:15. Believers should live like citizens of the new age (cf. Rom. 6:4).

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SPECIAL TOPIC: LAYING ON OF HANDS IN THE BIBLE

This gesture of personal involvement is used in several different ways in the Bible.

1. oath taking (i.e., hand under thigh [Gen. 24:2,9; 47:29])

2. passing on the family leadership (cf. Gen. 48:14,17,18)

3. identifying with the death of a sacrificial animal as a substitute

a. priests (cf. Exod. 29:10,15,19; Lev. 16:21; Num. 8:12)

b. laypersons (cf. Lev. 1:4; 3:2,8; 4:4,15,24; II Chr. 29:23)

4. setting persons aside to serve God in a special task or ministry (cf. Num. 8:10; 27:18,23; Deut. 34:9; Acts 6:6; 13:3; I Tim. 4:14; 5:22; II Tim. 1:6)

5. participating in the judicial stoning of a sinner (cf. Lev. 24:14)

6. the hand on one’s mouth denotes silence or acquiescence (cf. Jdgs. 18:19; Job 21:5; 29:9; 40:4; Micah 7:16)

7. the hand on one’s own head means sorrow/grief (II Sam. 13:19)

8. receiving a blessing for health, happiness, and godliness (cf. Matt. 19:13,15; Mark 10:16)

9. relating to physical healing (cf. Matt. 9:18; Mark 5:23; 6:5; 7:32; 8:23; 16:18; Luke 4:40; 13:13; Acts 9:17; 28:8)

10. receiving the Holy Spirit (cf. Acts 8:17-19; 9:17; 19:6)

There is a surprising lack of uniformity in the passages that have been historically used to support the ecclesiastical installation of leaders (i.e., ordination).

1. In Acts 6:6 it is the Apostles who lay hands on the seven for local ministry.

2. In Acts 13:3 it is the prophets and teachers who lay hands on Barnabas and Paul for missionary service.

3. In I Tim. 4:14 it is the local elders who were involved in Timothy’s initial call and installation

4. In II Tim. 1:6 it is Paul who lays hands on Timothy.

This diversity and ambiguity illustrate the lack of organization in the first century church. The early church was much more dynamic and regularly used the spiritual gifts of believers (cf. I Corinthians 14). The NT is simply not written to advocate or delineate a governmental model or ordinational procedure.

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SPECIAL TOPIC: LEAVEN

The term “leaven” (zumē) is used in two senses in both the OT and the NT:

1. a sense of corruption and, therefore, a symbol of evil

a. Exod. 12:15; 13:3,7; 23:18; 34:25; Lev. 2:11; 6:17; Deut. 16:3

b. Matt. 16:6,11; Mark 8:15; Luke 12:1; Gal. 5:9; I Cor. 5:6-8

2. a sense of permeation and, therefore, influence, not a symbol of evil

a. Lev. 7:13; 23:17; Amos 4:5

b. Matt. 13:33; Luke 13:20-21

Only context can determine the meaning of this word (which is true of all words!).

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SPECIAL TOPIC: HEBREW AND GREEK BACKGROUND OF LOGOS

Background of the term Logos

1. Hebrew background

a. the power of the spoken word (Isa. 55:11; Ps. 33:6; 107:20; 147:15,18), as in Creation (Gen. 1:3,6,9,11,14,20,24, 26,29) and the Patriarchal blessing (Gen. 27:1ff; 49:1)

b. Proverbs 8:12-23 personifies “Wisdom” as God’s first creation and agent of all creation (cf. Ps. 33:6 and the non-canonical Wisdom of Solomon, 9:9)

c. the Targums (Aramaic translations and commentaries) substitute the phrase “Word of God” for logos because of their discomfort with anthropomorphic terms

2. Greek background

a. Heracleitus – the world was in flux; the impersonal divine and unchanging logos held it together and guided the changing process

b. Plato – the impersonal and unchanging logos kept the planets on course and determined the seasons

c. Stoics – the logos was the “world reason” or manager, but was semi-personal

d. Philo – he personified the concept of logos as “High Priest that set the soul of man before God,” or “the bridge between man and God,” or “the tiller by which the Pilot of the universe steers all things” (kosmocrater)

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SPECIAL TOPIC: MAGIC

In ancient times there appear to be several types of individuals and groups involved in different kinds of magic.

1. There is a priestly caste from Medea involved in astrology called Chaldeans (cf. Dan. 1:20; 2:2,10,27; 4:7,9; 5:11; Matt. 2:1,7,16). Herodotus calls them “Medean priests.” They were involved in foretelling and controlling future events based on the movement and configuration of astral gods (i.e., planets, stars, constellations, comets).

2. There is a philosophical, mathematical counterpoint group in Greek life known as the Pythagorians.

3. Most magical groups were made up of persons who claimed to be able to manipulate the supernatural or natural forces of nature (cf. Gen. 41:8,24; Exod. 7:11,22; 8:7,19; 9:11). Often these forces (or gods) were seen to be in conflict with humanity and by taking the side of this force or that force the possessor of the knowledge could control the forces for personal gain (cf. the magical papyri of the third and fourth centuries a.d.). These individuals would:

a. foretell future events

b. control future events

c. interpret future events and dreams

d. curse or protect other individuals, cities, nations, armies, etc.

4. Magicians as in Acts 8:9,11 claimed to be able to manipulate the impersonal forces of nature or the personal (demonic) forces to perform their will. This often involved magical rites and incantation.

5. “True” magicians often attacked other magicians who did not perform the rites and liturgies correctly. These were call charlatan or deceivers (cf. Acts 13:6,8; 19:13).

6. The power of the gospel is seen in Paul’s ministry in Ephesus where former magicians converted to faith in Christ burned their expensive magic books (i.e., how to properly perform incantations, rites and liturgies, cf. Acts 19:19).

7. For further reading

a. Susan Garrett, The Demise of the Devil, Fortress Press, 1989

b. Merrill Unger, Biblical Demonology, Scripture Press, 1967

c. Hendrik Berkhof, Christ and the Powers, Herald Press, 1977

d. Waller Wink, Naming the Powers, Fortress Press, 1984

e. Clinton Arnold, Three Crucial Questions About Spiritual Warfare, Baker, 1997

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SPECIAL TOPIC: MESSIAH

This is taken from my commentary note at Daniel 9:6. The difficulty in interpreting this verse is because of the possible meanings associated with the term Messiah or anointed one (BDB 603).

1. used of Jewish kings (e.g., I Sam. 2:10; 12:3)

2. used of Jewish priests (e.g., Lev. 4:3,5)

3. used of Cyrus (cf. Isa. 45:1)

4. #1 and #2 are combined in Psalm 110 and Zechariah 4

5. used of God’s special coming, Davidic King to bring in the new age of righteousness

a. line of Judah (cf. Gen. 49:10)

b. house of Jesse (cf. II Samuel 7)

c. universal reign (cf. Psalm 2; Isa. 9:6; 11:1-5; Mic. 5:1-4ff)

I personally am attracted to the identification of “an anointed one” with Jesus of Nazareth because of

1. the introduction of an eternal Kingdom in chapter 2 during the fourth empire

2. the introduction of “a son of man” in 7:13 being given an eternal kingdom

3. the redemptive clauses of 9:24, which point toward a culmination of fallen world history

4. Jesus’ use of the book of Daniel in the NT (cf. Matt. 24:15; Mark 13:14)

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SPECIAL TOPIC: THE MOSAIC LAW AND THE CHRISTIAN

A. The Law is inspired Scripture and is eternal (cf. Matt. 5:17-19).

B. The Law as a way of salvation is void and has always been, but mankind had to see that his/her own effort was futile (cf. Matt. 5:20, 48; Rom. 7:7-12; Gal. 3:1ff; James 2:10).

C. The gospel of Christ is the only way to God (cf. John 14:6; Rom. 3:21; Gal. 2:15-21; Heb. 8:12).

D. The Old Testament is still helpful to believers as God’s will for humans in society, but not as the way of salvation. The cultus of Israel (sacrificial system, holy days, civic and religious laws) has passed away but God still speaks through the OT. The stipulations mentioned in Acts 15:20 refer only to fellowship issues, not to salvation.

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SPECIAL TOPIC: MOSES’ AUTHORSHIP OF THE PENTATEUCH

A. The Bible itself does not name the author (as is true of many OT books). Genesis has no “I” sections like Ezra, Nehemiah, or “we” sections like Acts.

B. Jewish tradition

1. Ancient Jewish writers say Moses wrote it

a. Ben Sirah’s Ecclesiasticus, 24:23, written about 185 b.c.

b. The Baba Bathra 14b, a part of the Talmud which gives traditional authorship of OT books

c. Philo of Alexandria, Egypt, a Jewish philosopher, living about 20 b.c. to a.d. 42

d. Flavius Josephus, a Jewish historian, living about a.d. 37-70

2. YHWH reveals truth to Moses

a. Moses is said to have written for the people

(1) Exodus 17:14

(2) Exodus 24:4, 7

(3) Exodus 34:27, 28

(4) Numbers 33:2

(5) Deuteronomy 31:9, 22, 24-26

b. God is said to have spoken through Moses to the people

(1) Deuteronomy 5:4-5, 22

(2) Deuteronomy 6:1

(3) Deuteronomy 10:1

c. Moses is said to have spoken the words of the Torah to the people

(1) Deuteronomy 1:1, 3

(2) Deuteronomy 5:1

(3) Deuteronomy 27:1

(4) Deuteronomy 29:2

(5) Deuteronomy 31:1, 30

(6) Deuteronomy 32:44

(7) Deuteronomy 33:1

3. OT authors attribute it to Moses

a. Joshua 8:31

b. II Kings 14:6

c. Ezra 6:18

d. Nehemiah 8:1; 13:1-2

e. II Chronicles 25:4; 34:12; 35:12

f. Daniel 9:11

g. Malachi 4:4

C. Christian tradition

1. Jesus attributes quotes from the Torah to Moses

a. Matthew 8:4; 19:8

b. Mark 1:44; 7:10; 10:5; 12:26

c. Luke 5:14; 16:31; 20:37; 24:27, 44

d. John 5:46-47; 7:19, 23

2. Other N.T. authors attribute quotes from the Torah to Moses

a. Luke 2:22

b. Acts 3:22; 13:39; 15:1, 15-21; 26:22; 28:23

c. Romans 10:5, 19

d. I Corinthians 9:9

e. II Corinthians 3:15

f. Hebrews 10:28

g. Revelation 15:3

3. Most early Church Fathers accepted Mosaic authorship. However, Ireneaus, Clement of Alexandria, Origen and Tertullian all had questions about Moses’ relationship to the current canonical form of Genesis (cf. D. 2. on page 3).

D. Modern Scholarship

1. There have obviously been some editorial additions to the Torah (seemingly to make the ancient work more understandable to contemporary readers, which was a characteristic of Egyptian scribes):

a. Genesis 12:6; 13:7; 14:14; 21:34; 32:32; 36:31; 47:11

b. Exodus 11:3; 16:36

c. Numbers 12:3; 13:22; 15:22-23; 21:14-15; 32:33ff

d. Deuteronomy 3:14; 34:6

2. Ancient scribes were highly trained and educated. Their techniques, however, differed from country to country:

a. In Mesopotamia, they were careful not to change anything, and even checked their works for accuracy. Here is an ancient Sumerian scribal footnote from about 1400 b.c.: “the work is complete from beginning to end, has been copied, revised, compared, and verified sign by sign.”

b. In Egypt they freely revised ancient texts to update them for contemporary readers. The scribes at Qumran (i.e., Dead Sea Scrolls) followed this approach.

3. Scholars of the 19th century theorized that the Torah is a composite document from many sources over an extended period of time (Graff-Wellhausen). This theory was based on:

a. the different names for God

b. apparent doublets in the text

c. the literary form of the accounts

d. the theology of the accounts

4. Supposed sources and dates

a. J source (use of YHWH from southern Israel) – 950 b.c.

b. E source (use of Elohim from northern Israel) – 850 b.c.

c. JE combined – 750 b.c.

d. D source – 621 b.c. (The Book of the Law, II Kgs. 22:8, discovered during Josiah's reform while remodeling the Temple was supposedly the book of Deuteronomy, written by an unknown priest of Josiah's time to support his reform.).

e. P source (priestly rewrite of OT, especially ritual and procedure) – 400 b.c.

5. There have obviously been editorial additions to the Torah. The Jews assert that it was

a. The High Priest (or another of his family) at the time of the writing

b. Jeremiah the Prophet

c. Ezra the Scribe – IV Esdras says he rewrote it because the originals were destroyed in the fall of Jerusalem in 586 b.c.

6. However, the J. E. D. P. theory says more about our modern literary theories and categories than evidence from the Torah (R. K. Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, pp. 495-541 and Tyndale's Commentaries, "Leviticus" pp. 15-25).

7. Characteristics of Hebrew Literature

a. Doublets, like Gen. 1 & 2, are common in Hebrew. Usually a general description is given, followed by a specific account. This may have been a way to accent truths or help oral memory.

b. The ancient rabbis said the two most common names for God have theological significance:

(1) YHWH – the Covenant name for deity as He relates to Israel as Savior and Redeemer (cf. Ps. 19:7-14; 103).

(2) Elohim – deity as Creator, Provider, and Sustainer of all life on earth (cf. Ps. 19:1-6; 104).

c. It is common in non-biblical near eastern literature for a variety of styles and vocabulary to occur in unified literary works (cf. R. K. Harrison, pp. 522-526).

8. There is an emerging theory that there were scribes (in different parts of Israel) working on different parts of the Pentateuch at the same time under the direction of Samuel (cf. I Sam. 10:25). This theory was first proposed by E. Robertson’s The Old Testament Problem.

E. The evidence from ancient Near Eastern literature implies that Moses used written cuneiform documents or Mesopotamian style (patriarchal) oral traditions to write Genesis. This in no way means to imply a lessening of inspiration, but is an attempt to explain the literary phenomenon of the book of Genesis (cf. P. J. Wiseman’s New Discoveries in Babylonia about Genesis). Beginning in Genesis 37, a marked Egyptian influence of style, form and vocabulary seems to indicate Moses used either literary productions or oral traditions from the Israelites' days in both Egypt and Mesopotamia. Moses' formal education was entirely Egyptian! The exact literary

formation of the Pentateuch is uncertain. I believe that Moses is the compiler and author of the vast majority of the Pentateuch, though he may have used scribes and/or written and oral (patriarchal) traditions. His writings have been updated by later scribes. The historicity and trustworthiness of these first few books of the OT have been illustrated by modern archaeology.

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SPECIAL TOPIC: THE LOCATION OF MT. SINAI

A. If Moses was speaking literally and not figuratively of the “three day journey” he requested of Pharaoh (3:18; 5:3; 8:27), that was not a long enough time for them to get to the traditional site in the southern Sinai peninsula. Therefore, some scholars place the mountain near the oasis of Kadesh-Barnea.

B. The traditional site called “Jebel Musa,” in the Wilderness of Sin, has several things in its favor.

1. A large plain before the mountain.

2. Deuteronomy 1:2 says it was an eleven day journey from Mt. Sinai to Kadesh-Barnea.

3. The term “Sinai” is a non-Hebrew term. It may be linked to the Wilderness of Sin, which refers to a small desert bush. The Hebrew name for the mountain is Horeb (i.e., wilderness).

4. Mt. Sinai has been the traditional site since the fourth century a.d. It is in the “land of Midian,” which included a large area of the Sinai peninsula and Arabia.

5. It seems that archaeology has confirmed the location of some of the cities mentioned in the Exodus account (Elim, Dophkah, Rephidim) as being on the western side of the Sinai Peninsula.

C. The Jews were never interested in the geographical location of Mt. Sinai. They believed that God gave them the Law and fulfilled His promise from Gen. 15:12-21. “Where” was not the issue and they did not intend to return to this site (i.e., no annual pilgrimage).

D. The traditional site of Mt. Sinai was not established until Pilgrimage of Silvia, written about a.d. 385-8 (cf. F. F. Bruce, Commentary on the Book of the Acts, p. 151.

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SPECIAL TOPIC: MURDER (EXODUS 20:13)

I. Context

B. It needs to be remembered that each command focused on the believing community. Its implications are as wide as humanity!

II. Word Study of Significant Terms

A. “Murder”

1. This term rasah, חצר, BDB 953, means taking a life. It is used only forty six times in the OT. There are several other overlapping Hebrew terms used hundreds of times.

2. The term (rasah) seems to have an original limited meaning and an expanded meaning.

a. Originally it related to taking the life of a covenant partner in a legal, premeditated way, often associated with “the kinsman redeemer” or go’el. This usage involved premeditation, but in a sense of legal revenge (cf. Num. 35:30-34; Lev. 24:13-23). In reality the Lex Talionis, “eye for eye,” (cf. Gen. 9:5-6) was a way to limit revenge. Later, the cities of refuge (Deut. 4:41; Josh. 20:3) were established so that a covenant member who accidently or passionately killed another member of the community could flee the wrath of the victim’s family.

b. Later the term came to refer to the motive or attitude behind the taking of a life. The concept of “intentionality” becomes uppermost (cf. Exod. 21:12-14; Num. 35:11,22; Deut. 28:24).

c. This distinction becomes significant in this command. It seems in context to refer only to others within the covenant community. It is related to the kinsman redeemer, or blood revenge. However, the term is used in later passages which reflect the Decalog, Hosea 4:2 and Jer. 8:9, to refer to a murderer. This word relates not only to the law, but to the motive. It expands from neighbor to fellow human being.

3. This term certainly does not relate to our modern ethical issue of capital punishment or war. The Jews never had a problem with community execution or holy war (or, for that matter, unholy war!).

4. The best translation for our modern culture would be “premeditated murder.”

III. Contextual Insights

A. The sixth, seventh, and eighth commands are made up of only two Hebrew words. They are very short and to the point.

B. Life, like all of creation, is related to God. How we treat others reflects our thoughts about God.

IV. New Testament Parallels

A. Jesus

1. His expansion of this commandment in Matt. 5:21-26 gives us the proper orientation for our modern discussion about how to apply this text to our day.

2. Jesus obviously moved the Decalog from the realm of actions into the realm of motives. We are what we think! “As a man thinks in his heart, so is he.” The thought life is more relevant and significant than we normally give it credit.

B. John

1. In John 3:5, this same concept of hate being considered murder is stated.

2. The Greek terms used in Matt. 5:21ff and I John 3:5 are different, but the meaning is essentially the same.

3. Note the positive aspect in I John 4:19-21.

V. Application

A. Even though an unintentional murderer can escape the blood avenger by fleeing to a city of refuge (Numbers 35; Joshua 20), he has to pay the penalty of confinement in that city until the death of the High Priest. The consequences of his act still remain.

C. This text does not, however, speak a decisive word to the modern question of (1) capital punishment or (2) war. For Israel, these were not evil things in themselves. The Israelites were involved in both of these acts. Still, the principle of the significance of life made in God’s image and under His control is an important truth in this area.

We are as responsible for the physical, social, and psychological abuse of our own bodies as we are the physical, social, and psychological abuse of others in our community. This is especially true in a culture like ours where we are allowed to speak to and, thereby, change the system. We are our brothers’ keeper!

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SPECIAL TOPIC: MYSTERY IN THE GOSPELS

A. In the Synoptic Gospels “mystery” is used of the spiritual insights gleaned from Jesus’ parables.

1. Mark 4:11

2. Matthew 13:11

3. Luke 8:10

B. Paul uses it in several different ways.

1. A partial hardening of Israel to allow Gentiles to be included. This influx of Gentiles will work as a mechanism for Jews to accept Jesus as the Christ of prophecy (cf. Rom. 11:25-32).

2. The gospel made known to the nations, telling them that they are all included in Christ and through Christ (cf. Rom. 16:25-27; Col. 2:2).

3. Believers’ new bodies at the Second Coming (cf. I Cor. 15:5-57; I Thess. 4:13-18).

4. The summing up of all things in Christ (cf. Eph. 1:8-11).

5. The Gentiles and Jews as fellow-heirs (cf. Eph. 2:11-3:13).

6. Intimacy of the relationship between Christ and the Church described in marriage terms (cf. Eph. 5:22-33).

7. Gentiles included in the covenant people and indwelt by the Spirit of Christ so as to produce Christlike maturity, that is, restore the marred image of God in man (cf. Gen. 1:26-27; 5:1; 6:5,11-13; 8:21; 9:6; Col. 1:26-28).

8. The end time Anti-Christ (cf. II Thess. 2:1-11).

9. An early church hymn about the mystery of the gospel is found in I Tim. 3:16.

C. In John’s Revelation it is used of the meaning of John’s apocalyptic symbols.

1. 1:20

2. 10:7

3. 17:5,6

D. These are truths that men cannot discover; they must be revealed by God. These insights are crucial for a true understanding of God’s eternal plan for the redemption of all people (cf. Gen. 3:15).

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SPECIAL TOPIC: MYSTERY

God has a unified purpose for mankind’s redemption that even preceded the fall (cf. Genesis 3). Hints of this plan are revealed in the OT (cf. Gen. 3:15; 12:3; Exod. 19:5-6; and the universal passages in the prophets). However this full agenda was not clear (cf. I Cor. 2:6-8). With the coming of Jesus and the Spirit it begins to become more obvious. Paul uses the term “mystery” to describe this total redemptive plan (cf. I Cor. 4:1; Eph. 6:19; Col. 4:3; I Tim. 1:9). However, he uses it in several different senses:

1. A partial hardening of Israel to allow Gentiles to be included . This influx of Gentiles will work as a mechanism for Jews to accept Jesus as the Christ of prophecy (cf. Rom. 11:25-32).

2. The gospel was made known to the nations, which are all included in Christ and through Christ (cf. Rom. 16:25-27; Col. 2:2).

3. Believers’ new bodies at the Second Coming (cf. I Cor. 15:5-57; I Thess. 4:13-18).

4. The summing up of all things in Christ (cf. Eph. 1:8-11).

5. The Gentiles and Jews are fellow-heirs (cf. Eph. 2:11-3:13).

6. Intimacy of the relationship between Christ and the Church described in marriage terms (cf. Eph. 5:22-33).

7. Gentiles included in the covenant people and indwelt by the Spirit of Christ so as to produce Christlike maturity, that is, restore the marred image of God in fallen humanity (cf. Gen. 6:5,11-13; 8:21) of God in man (cf. Gen. 1:26-27; 5:1; 9:6; Col. 1:26-28).

8. The end time Anti-Christ (cf. II Thess. 2:1-11).

9. An early church summary of the mystery is found in I Tim. 3:16.

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SPECIAL TOPIC: THE NAMES FOR DEITY

A. El (BDB 42, KB 48)

1. The original meaning of the generic ancient term for deity is uncertain, though many scholars believe it comes from the Akkadian root, “to be strong” or “to be powerful” (cf. Gen. 17:1; Num. 23:19; Deut. 7:21; Ps. 50:1).

2. In the Canaanite pantheon the high god is El (Ras Shamra texts)

3. In the Bible El is not usually compounded with other terms. These combinations became a way to characterize God.

a. El-Elyon (God Most High, BDB 42 & 751 II), Gen. 14:18-22; Deut. 32:8; Isa. 14:14

b. El-Roi (“God who sees” or “God who reveals Himself,” BDB 42 & 909), Gen. 16:13

c. El-Shaddai (“God Almighty” or “God the All Compassion” or “God of the mountain,” BDB 42 & 994), Gen. 17:1; 35:11; 43:14; 49:25; Exod. 6:3

d. El-Olam (the Everlasting God, BDB 42 & 761), Gen. 21:33. This term is theologically linked to God’s promise to David, II Sam. 7:13,16

e. El-Berit (“God of the Covenant,” BDB 42 & 136), Jdgs. 9:46

4. El is equated with

a. YHWH in Ps. 85:8; Isa. 42:5

b. Elohim in Gen. 46:3; Job 5:8, “I am El, the Elohim of your father”

c. Shaddai in Gen. 49:25

d. “jealousy” in Exod. 34:14; Deut. 4:24; 5:9; 6:15

e. “mercy” in Deut. 4:31; Neh. 9:31;

f. “great and awesome” in Deut. 7:21; 10:17; Neh. 1:5; 9:32; Dan. 9:4

g. “knowledge” in I Sam. 2:3

h. “my strong refuge” in II Sam. 22:33

i. “my avenger” in II Sam. 22:48

j. “holy one” in Isa. 5:16

k. “might” in Isa. 10:21

l. “my salvation” in Isa. 12:2

m. “great and powerful” in Jer. 32:18

n. “retribution” in Jer. 51:56

5. A combination of all the major OT names for God is found in Joshua 22:22 (El, Elohim, YHWH, repeated)

B. Elyon (BDB 751, KB 832)

1. Its basic meaning is “high,” “exalted,” or “lifted up” (cf. Gen. 40:17; I Kgs. 9:8; II Kgs. 18:17; Neh. 3:25; Jer. 20:2; 36:10; Ps. 18:13).

2. It is used in a parallel sense to several other names/titles of God.

a. Elohim – Ps. 47:1-2; 73:11; 107:11

b. YHWH – Gen. 14:22; II am. 22:14

c. El-Shaddai – Ps. 91:1,9

d. El – Num. 24:16

e. Elah – used often in Daniel 2-6 and Ezra 4-7, linked with illair (Aramaic for “High God”) in Dan. 3:26; 4:2; 5:18,21

3. It is often used by non-Israelites.

a. Melchizedek, Gen. 14:18-22

b. Balaam, Num. 24:16

c. Moses, speaking of the nations in Deut. 32:8

d. Luke’s Gospel in the NT, writing to Gentiles, also uses the Greek equivalent Hupsistos (cf. 1:32,35,76; 6:35; 8:28; Acts 7:48; 16:17)

C. Elohim (plural), Eloah (singular), used primarily in poetry (BDB 43, KB 52)

1. This term is not found outside the Old Testament.

2. This word can designate the God of Israel or the gods of the nations (cf. Exod. 12:12; 20:3). Abraham’s family were polytheistic (cf. Josh. 24:2).

3. It can refer to Israeli judges (cf. Exod. 21:6; Ps. 82:6).

4. The term elohim is also used of other spiritual beings (angels, the demonic) as in Deut. 32:8 (LXX); Ps. 8:5; Job 1:6; 38:7.

5. In the Bible it is the first title/name for Deity (cf. Gen. 1:1). It is used exclusively until Gen. 2:4, where it is combined with YHWH. It basically (theologically) refers to God as creator, sustainer, and provider of all life on this planet (cf. Ps. 104).

It is synonymous with El (cf. Deut. 32:15-19). It can also parallel YHWH as Psalm 14 (Elohim) is exactly like Psalm 53 (YHWH), except for the change in divine names.

6. Although plural and used of other gods, this term often designates the God of Israel, but usually it has the singular verb to denote the monotheistic usage.

7. This term is found in the mouths of non-Israelites as the name for deity.

a. Melchizedek, Gen. 14:18-22

b. Balaam, Num. 24:2

c. Moses, when speaking of the nations, Deut. 32:8

8. It is strange that a common name for the monotheistic God of Israel is plural! Although there is no certainty, here are the theories.

a. Hebrew has many plurals, often used for emphasis. Closely related to this is the later Hebrew grammatical feature called “the plural of majesty,” where the plural is used to magnify a concept.

b. This may refer to the angelic council, whom God meets with in heaven and who does His biding (cf. I Kgs. 22:19-23; Job 1:6; Ps. 82:1; 89:5,7).

c. It is even possible this reflects the NT revelation of the one God in three persons. In Gen. 1:1 God creates; Gen. 1:2 the Spirit broods, and from the NT Jesus is God the Father’s agent in creation (cf. John 1:3,10; Rom. 11:36; I Cor. 8:6; Col. 1:15; Heb. 1:2; 2:10).

D. YHWH (BDB 217, KB 394)

1. This is the name which reflects deity as the covenant-making God; God as savior, redeemer! Humans break covenants, but God is loyal to His word, promise, covenant (cf. Psalm 103).

This name is first mentioned in combination with Elohim in Gen. 2:4. There are not two creation accounts in Genesis 1-2, but two emphases: (1) God as the creator of the universe (the physical) and (2) God as the special creator of humanity. Genesis 2:4-3:24 begins the special revelation about the privileged position and purpose of mankind, as well as the problem of sin and rebellion associated with the unique position.

2. In Gen. 4:26 it is said “men began to call upon the name of the Lord” (YHWH). However, Exod. 6:3 implies that early covenant people (the Patriarchs and their families) knew God only as El–Shaddai. The name YHWH is explained only one time in Exod. 3:13-16, esp. v. 14. However, the writings of Moses often interpret words by popular word plays, not etymologies (cf. Gen. 17:5; 27:36; 29:13-35). There have been several theories as to the meaning of this name (taken from IDB, vol. 2, pp. 409-11).

a. from an Arabic root, “to show fervent love”

b. from an Arabic root “to blow” (YHWH as storm God)

c. from a Ugartic (Canaanite) root “to speak”

d. following a Phoenician inscription, a causative participle meaning “the One who sustains,” or “the One who establishes”

e. from the Hebrew Qal form “the One who is,” or “the One who is present” (in future sense, “the One who will be”)

f. from the Hebrew Hiphil form “the One who causes to be”

g. from the Hebrew root “to live” (e.g., Gen. 3:20), meaning “the ever-living, only- living One”

h. from the context of Exod. 3:13-16 a play on the imperfect form used in a perfect sense, “I shall continue to be what I used to be” or “I shall continue to be what I havealways been” (cf. J. Wash Watts, A Survey of Syntax in the Old Testament, p. 67). The full name YHWH is often expressed in abbreviation or possibly an original form.

(1) Yah (e.g., Hallelu - yah, BDB 219, cf. Exod. 15:2; 17:16; Ps. 89:9; 104:35)

(2) Yahu (“iah” ending of names, e.g., Isaiah)

(3) Yo (“Jo” beginning of names, e.g., Joshua or Joel)

3. In later Judaism this covenant name became so holy (the tetragrammaton) that Jews were afraid to say it lest they break the command of Exod. 20:7; Deut. 5:11; 6:13. So they substituted the Hebrew term for “owner,” “master,” “husband,” “lord”—adon or adonai (my lord). When they came to YHWH in their reading of OT texts they pronounced “lord.” This is why YHWH is written Lord in English translations.

4. As with El, YHWH is often combined with other terms to emphasize certain characteristics of the Covenant God of Israel. While there are many possible combination terms, here are some.

a. YHWH – Yireh (YHWH will provide, BDB 217 & 906), Gen. 22:14

b. YHWH – Rophekha (YHWH is your healer, BDB 217 & 950, Qal participle), Exod. 15:26

c. YHWH – Nissi (YHWH is my banner, BDB 217 & 651), Exod. 17:15

d. YHWH - Meqaddishkem (YHWH the One who sanctifies you, BDB 217 & 872, Piel participle), Exod. 31:13

e. YHWH – Shalom (YHWH is Peace, BDB 217 & 1022), Jdgs. 6:24

f. YHWH – Sabbaoth (YHWH of hosts, BDB 217 & 878), I Sam. 1:3,11; 4:4; 15:2; often in the Prophets

g. YHWH – Ro‘I (YHWH is my shepherd, BDB 217 & 944, Qal participle), Ps. 23:1

h. YHWH – Sidqenu (YHWH is our righteousness, BDB 217 & 841), Jer. 23:6

i. YHWH – Shammah (YHWH is there, BDB 217 & 1027), Ezek. 48:35

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SPECIAL TOPIC: THE NAME OF THE LORD

This was a common NT phrase for the personal presence and active power of the Triune God in the church. It was not a magical formula, but an appeal to God’s character.

Often this phrase refers to Jesus as Lord (cf. Phil. 2:11)

1. at the profession of one’s faith in Jesus at baptism (cf. Rom. 10:9-13; Acts 2:38; 8:12,16; 10:48; 19:5; 22:16; I Cor. 1:13,15; James 2:7)

2. at an exorcism (cf. Matt. 7:22; Mark 9:38; Luke 9:49; 10:17; Acts 19:13)

3. at a healing (cf. Acts 3:6,16; 4:10; 9:34; James 5:14)

4. at an act of ministry (cf. Matt. 10:42; 18:5; Luke 9:48)

5. at the time of church discipline (cf. Matt. 18:15-20)

6. during preaching to Gentiles (cf. Luke 24:47; Acts 9:15; 15:17; Rom. 1:5)

7. in prayer (cf. John 14:13-14; 15:2,16; 16:23; I Cor. 1:2)

8. a way of referring to Christianity (cf. Acts 26:9; I Cor. 1:10; II Tim. 2:19; James 2:7; I Pet. 4:14)

Whatever we do as proclaimers, ministers, helpers, healers, exorcists, etc., we do in His character, His power, His provisions—in His Name!

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SPECIAL TOPIC: NATURAL RESOURCES

I. Introduction

A. All creation is the backdrop or stage for God’s love affair with mankind.

B. It shares in the fall (cf. Gen. 3:17; 6:1ff; Rom. 8:18-20). Also, it will share in eschatological redemption (cf. Isa. 11:6-9; Rom. 8:20-22; Rev. 21-22).

C. Sinful, fallen mankind has raped the natural environment with selfish abandon. Following is a quote from The Canon of Westminster by Edward Carpenter.

“. . .man’s relentless assault, in a global context, upon the universe around him—that is on God’s creation—an attack on the air which he pollutes; the natural waterways which he befouls; the soil which he poisons; the forests which he hews down, heedless of the long-term affects of this wanton destruction. This attack is piecemeal and uncoordinated. Scant regard is paid to any balance of nature and consequently little sense of responsibility for what one generation owes to another.”

D. Not only are we reaping the result of pollution and exploitation of our planet, but our posterity will reap even more severe, non-reversible consequences.

II. Biblical Material

A. Old Testament

1. Genesis 1-3

a. Creation is a special place created by God for fellowship with mankind (cf. Gen. 1:1-25).

b. Creation is good (cf. Gen. 1:4,10,12,18,21,25), yea, very good (cf. Gen. 1:31). It is meant to be a witness to God (cf. Ps. 19:1-16).

c. Humanity is the crowning purpose of creation (cf Gen. 1:26-27).

d. Humanity was meant to exercise dominion (Hebrew, “to tread”) as a steward to God (cf. Gen. 1:28-30; Psalm 8:3-8; Hebrews 2:6-8). God is and remains the Creator/Sustainer/ Redeemer/Lord of creation (cf. Exod. 19:5; Job 37-41; Psalm 24:1-2; 95:3-5; 102:25; 115:15; 121:2; 124:8; 134:3; 146:6; Isa. 37:16).

e. Mankind’s stewardship of creation can be seen in Gen. 2:15, “to cultivate it and preserve and protect it” (cf. Lev. 25:23; I Chr. 29:14).

2. God loves creation, especially animals.

a. Mosaic laws for proper treatment of animals

b. YHWH playing with Leviathan (cf. Ps. 104:26)

c. God cares for animals (cf. Jonah 4:11)

d. Eschatological presence of nature (cf. Isa. 11:6-9; Revelation 21-22)

3. Nature, to some extent, glorifies God.

a. Psalm 19:1-6

b. Psalm 29:1-9

c. Job 37-41

4. Nature is one means by which God shows His love and loyalty to the covenant.

a. Deut. 27-28; I Kings 17

b. Throughout the prophets

B. New Testament

1. God is seen as creator. There is only one Creator, the Triune God (Elohim, Gen. 1:1; the Spirit, Gen. 1:2; and Jesus, the NT). All else is created.

a. Acts 17:24

b. Hebrews 11:3

c. Revelation 4:11

2. Jesus is God’s agent of creation

a. John 1:3,10

b. I Corinthians 8:6

c. Colossians 1:16

d. Hebrews 1:2

3. Jesus speaks of God’s care for nature in an indirect way in His sermons

a. Matthew 6:26,28-30, birds of the air and lilies of the field

b. Matthew 10:29, sparrows

4. Paul asserts that all humans are responsible for their knowledge of God in creation (i.e natural revelation, cf. Rom. 1:19-20; Rev. 21-22).

III. Conclusion

A. We are bound to this natural order!

B. Sinful mankind has abused God’s gift of nature as they have all the other good gifts of God.

C. This natural order is temporal. It is going to pass away (II Pet. 3:7). God is moving our world to a historical nexus. Sin will run its course, but God has determined its bounds. Creation will be redeemed (cf. Rom. 8:18-25).

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SPECIAL TOPIC: NAZARITE VOW

Its Purpose

A. This was a way for someone, male or female (cf. Num. 6:1), who was not of the tribe of Levi, to dedicate himself or herself to God’s service (i.e., “holy to the Lord”). Nazarite means “one separated” (BDB 634), which is the root idea of the Hebrew term holy.

B. In the OT it was a life-long vow

1. Samson (Jdgs. 13:7)

2. Samuel ( I Sam. 1:21)

3. John the Baptist

C. Judaism developed a short-term Nazarite vow (probably developed from the words in Num. 6:5). The shortest length was thirty days. This short-term vow culminated in the shaving of the head and burning of the shavings along with a sacrifice at the temple.

D. The specific requirements (cf. Num. 6:1-8)

1. Abstain from wine and strong drink, eat no product of the vine (cf. Num. 6:3-4).

2. Do not cut one’s hair.

3. Do not touch a dead person. This would make it impossible to participate in any of the Jewish funeral procedures.

4. A provision for accidental defilement is in Num. 6:9. Apparently Paul’s situation in Acts 21:23-25 involved this issue. There was a period of purification and a sacrifice prescribed (cf. Num. 6:9-12).

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SPECIAL TOPIC: THE NEED TO PERSEVERE

The biblical doctrines related to the Christian life are difficult to explain because they are presented in typically eastern dialectical pairs. These pairs seem contradictory, yet both are biblical. Western Christians have tended to choose one truth and ignore or depreciate the opposite truth. Let me illustrate.

A. Is salvation an initial decision to trust Christ or a lifetime commitment to discipleship?

B. Is salvation an election by means of grace from a sovereign God or mankind’s believing and repentant response to a divine offer?

C. Is salvation, once received, impossible to lose, or is there a need for continual diligence?

The issue of perseverance has been contentious throughout church history. The problem begins with apparently conflicting passages of the NT:

A. texts on assurance

1. statements of Jesus (John 6:37; 10:28-29)

2. statements of Paul (Rom. 8:35-39; Eph. 1:13; 2:5,8-9; Phil. 1:6; 2:13; II Thess. 3:3; II Tim. 1:12; 4:18)

3. statements of Peter ( I Pet. 1:4-5)

B. texts on the need for perseverance

1. statements of Jesus (Matt. 10:22; 13:1-9,24-30; 24:13; Mark 13:13; John 8:31; 15:4-10; Rev. 2:7,17,20; 3:5,12,21)

2. statements of Paul (Rom. 11:22; I Cor. 15:2; II Cor. 13:5; Gal. 1:6; 3:4; 5:4; 6:9; Phil. 2:12; 3:18-20; Col. 1:23)

3. statements of the author of Hebrews (2:1; 3:6,14; 4:14; 6:11)

4. statements of John (I John 2:6; II John 9)

5. statement of the Father (Rev. 21:7)

Biblical salvation issues from the love, mercy, and grace of a sovereign Triune God. No human can be saved without the initiation of the Spirit (cf. John 6:44,65). Deity comes first and sets the agenda, but demands that humans must respond in faith and repentance, both initially and continually. God works with mankind in a covenant relationship. There are privileges and responsibilities!

Salvation is offered to all humans. Jesus’ death dealt with the fallen creation’s sin problem. God has provided a way and wants all those made in His image to respond to His love and provision in Jesus.

If you would like to read more on this subject from a non-Calvinistic perspective, see

1. Dale Moody, The Word of Truth, Eerdmans, 1981 (pp. 348-365)

2. Howard Marshall, Kept by the Power of God, Bethany Fellowship, 1969

3. Robert Shank, Life in the Son, Westcott, 1961

The Bible is addressing two different problems in this area: (1) taking assurance as a license to live fruitless, selfish lives and (2) encouraging those who struggle with ministry and personal sin. The problem is that the wrong groups are taking the wrong message and building theological systems on limited biblical passages. Some Christians desperately need the message of assurance, while others need the stern warnings! Which group are you in?

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SPECIAL TOPIC: NEW TESTAMENT PROPHECY

I. It is not the same as OT prophecy (BDB 611), which has the rabbinical connotation of inspired revelations from YHWH (cf. Acts 3:18,21; Rom. 16:26). Only prophets could write Scripture.

A. Moses was called a prophet (cf. Deut. 18:15-21).

B. History books (Joshua - Kings [except Ruth]) were called the “former prophets” (cf. Acts 3:24).

C. Prophets usurp the place of High Priest as the source of information from God (cf. Isaiah - Malachi)

D. The second division of the Hebrew canon is “the Prophets” (cf. Matt. 5:17; 22:40; Luke 16:16; 24:25,27; Rom. 3:21).

II. In the NT the concept is used in several different ways.

A. referring to OT prophets and their inspired message (cf. Matt. 2:23; 5:12; 11:13; 13:14; Rom. 1:2)

B. referring to a message for an individual rather than a corporate group (i.e., OT prophets spoke primarily to Israel)

C. referring to both John the Baptist (cf. Matt. 11:9; 14:5; 21:26; Luke 1:76) and Jesus as proclaimers of the Kingdom of God (cf. Matt. 13:57; 21:11,46; Luke 4:24; 7:16; 13:33; 24:19). Jesus also claimed to be greater than the prophets (cf. Matt. 11:9; 12:41; Luke 7:26).

D. other prophets in the NT

1. early life of Jesus as recorded in Luke’s Gospel (i.e., Mary’s memories)

a. Elizabeth (cf. Luke 1:41-42)

b. Zacharias (cf. Luke 1:67-79)

c. Simeon (cf. Luke 2:25-35)

d. Anna (cf. Luke 2:36)

2. ironic predictions (cf. Caiaphas, John 11:51)

E. referring to one who proclaims the gospel (the lists of proclaiming gifts in I Cor. 12:28-29; Eph. 4:11)

F. referring to an ongoing gift in the church (cf. Matt. 23:34; Acts 13:1; 15:32; Rom. 12:6; I Cor. 12:10,28-29; 13:2; Eph. 4:11). Sometimes this can refer to women (cf. Luke 2:36; Acts 2:17; 21:9; I Cor. 11:4-5).

G. referring to the apocalyptic book of Revelation (cf. Rev. 1:3; 22:7,10,18,19)

III. NT prophets

A. They do not give inspired revelation in the same sense as did the OT prophets (i.e., Scripture). This statement is possible because of the use of the phrase “the faith” (i.e., a sense of a completed gospel) used in Acts 6:7; 13:8; 14:22; Gal. 1:23; 3:23; 6:10; Phil. 1:27; Jude 3,20.

This concept is clear from the full phrase used in Jude 3, “the faith once and for all handed down to the saints.” The “once for all” faith refers to the truths, doctrines, concepts, world-view teachings of Christianity. This once-given emphasis is the biblical basis for theologically limiting inspiration to the writings of the NT and not allowing later or other writings to be considered revelatory. There are many ambiguous, uncertain, and grey areas in the NT, but believers affirm by faith that everything that is “needed” for faith and practice is included with sufficient clarity in the NT. This concept has been delineated in what is called “the revelatory triangle

1. God has revealed Himself in time-space history (REVELATION)

2. He has chosen certain human writers to document and explain His acts (INSPIRATION)

3. He has given His Spirit to open the minds and hearts of humans to understand these writings, not definitively, but adequately for salvation and an effective Christian life (ILLUMINATION). The point of this is that inspiration is limited to the writers of Scripture. There are no further authoritative writings, visions, or revelations. The canon is closed. We have all the truth we need to respond appropriately to God. This truth is best seen in the agreement of biblical writers versus the disagreement of sincere, godly believers. No modern writer or speaker has the level of divine leadership that the writers of Scripture did.

B. In some ways NT prophets are similar to OT prophets.

1. prediction of future events (cf. Paul, Acts 27:22; Agabus, Acts 11:27-28; 21:10-11; other unnamed prophets, Acts 20:23)

2. proclaim judgment (cf. Paul, Acts 13:11; 28:25-28)

3. symbolic acts which vividly portray an event (cf. Agabus, Acts 21:11)

C. They do proclaim the truths of the gospel sometimes in predictive ways (cf. Acts 11:27-28; 20:23; 21:10-11), but this is not the primary focus. Prophesying in I Corinthians is basically communicating the gospel (cf. 14:24,39).

D. They are the Spirit’s contemporary means of revealing the contemporary and practical applications of God’s truth to each new situation, culture, or time period (cf. I Cor. 14:3).

E. They were active in the early Pauline churches (cf. I Cor. 11:4-5; 12:28,29; 13:29; 14:1,3,4,5,6,22,24,29,31, 32,37,39; Eph. 2:20; 3:5; 4:11; I Thess. 5:20) and are mentioned in

the Didache (written in the late first century or in the second century, date uncertain) and in Montanism of the second and third centuries in northern Africa.

IV. Have the NT gifts ceased?

A. This question is difficult to answer. It helps to clarify the issue by defining the purpose of the gifts. Are they meant to confirm the initial preaching of the gospel or are they ongoing ways for the church to minister to itself and a lost world?

B. Does one look at the history of the church to answer the question or the NT itself? There is no indication in the NT that the spiritual gifts were temporary. Those who try to use I Cor.

13:8-13 to address this issue abuse the authorial intent of the passage, which asserts that everything but love will pass away.

C. I am tempted to say that since the NT, not church history, is the authority, believers must affirm that the gifts continue. However, I believe that culture affects interpretation. Some very clear texts are no longer applicable (i.e., the holy kiss, women wearing veils, churches meeting in homes, etc). If culture affects texts, then why not church history?

D. This is simply a question that cannot be definitively answered. Some believers will advocate “cessation” and others “non-cessation.” In this area, as in many interpretative issues, the heart of the believer is the key. The NT is ambiguous and cultural. The difficulty is being able to decide which texts are affected by culture/history and which are for all time and all cultures (cf. Fee and Stuart’s How to Read the Bible for All Its Worth, pp. 14-19 and 69-77). Here is where the discussions of freedom and responsibility, which are found in Rom. 14:1-15:13 and I Corinthians 8-10, are crucial. How we answer the question is important in two ways.

1. Each believer must walk in faith in the light they have. God looks at our heart and motives.

2. Each believer must allow other believers to walk in their faith understanding. There must be tolerance within biblical bounds. God wants us to love one another as He does.

E. To sum up the issue, Christianity is a life of faith and love, not a perfect theology. A relationship with Him which impacts our relationship with others is more important than definitive information or creedal perfection.

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SPECIAL TOPIC: NT TERMS FOR CHRIST’S RETURN

The eschatological emphasis of a special coming day when humans will meet Jesus (as Savior and Judge) goes by several designations in Paul’s writings.

1. “the day of our Lord Jesus Christ” (cf. I Cor. 1:8)

2. “the day of the Lord” (cf. I Cor. 5:5; I Thess. 5:2; II Thess. 2:2)

3. “the day of the Lord Jesus” (cf. I Cor. 5:5; II Cor. 1:14)

4. “the day of Jesus Christ” (cf. Phil. 1:6)

5. “the day of Christ” (cf. Phil. 1:10; 2:16)

6. “His day (Son of Man)” (cf. Luke 17:24)

7. “the day that the Son of Man is revealed” (cf. Luke 17:30)

8. “the revelation of our Lord Jesus Christ” (cf. I Cor. 1:7)

9. “when the Lord Jesus shall be revealed from heaven” (cf. II Thess. 1:7)

10. “in the presence of the Lord Jesus at His coming” (cf. I Thess. 2:19)

There are at least four ways in which the NT authors refer to the return of Jesus.

1. epiphaneia, which refers to a dazzling brightness which is theologically (though not etymologically) related to “glory.” In II Tim. 1:10; Titus 2:11 and 3:4 it refers to Jesus’ first coming (i.e. incarnation) and His Second coming. It is used in II Thess. 4:8 which includes all three major terms for the Second Coming: I Tim. 6:14; II Tim. 4:1,8; Titus 2:13.

2. parousia, which implies presence and originally referred to a royal visit. It is the most widely used term (cf. Matt. 24:3,27,37,39; I Cor. 15:23; I Thess. 2:19; 3:13; 4:15; 5:23; II Thess. 2:1,8; James 5:7,8; II Pet. 1:6; 3:4,12; I John 2:28).

3. apokalupsis (or apocalypsis), which means an unveiling for the purpose of revealing. It is the name of the last book in the NT (cf. Luke 17:30; I Cor. 1:7; II Thess. 1:7; I Pet. 1:7; 4:13).

4. phaneroō , which means to bring to light or clearly reveal or manifest. The term is used often in the NT for many aspects of God’s revelation. It, like epiphaneia, can refer to Christ’s first coming (cf. I Pet. 1:20; I Jn. 1:2; 3:5,8; 4:9) and His second coming (cf. Matt. 24:30; Col. 3:4; I Pet. 5:4; I John 2:28; 3:2).

5. The very common term for “coming,” erchomai, is also used occasionally for Christ’s return (cf. Matt. 16:27-28; 23:39; 24:30; 25:31; Acts 1:10-11; I Cor. 11:26; Rev. 1:7,8).

6. It is also used with the phrase “day of the Lord” (cf. I Thess. 5:2), which is an OT title for God’s day of blessing (resurrection) and judgment.

The NT as a whole is written within the worldview of the OT, which asserted

a. a current evil, rebellious age

b. a coming new age of righteousness

c. an age brought about by the Spirit’s agency through the work of the Messiah (Anointed One)

The theological assumption of progressive revelation is required because the NT authors slightly modify Israel’s expectation. Instead of a military, nationalistic (Israel) coming of the Messiah, there are two comings. The first coming is the incarnation of deity in the conception and birth of Jesus of Nazareth. He came as the non-military, non-judicial “suffering servant” of Isa. 53; also the mild rider on the colt of a donkey (not a war horse or kingly mule), of Zech. 9:9. The first coming inaugurated the New Messianic Age, the Kingdom of God on earth. In one sense the Kingdom is here, but of course, in another it is still far off. It is this tension between the two comings of the Messiah which, in a sense, is the over-lapping of the two Jewish ages that was unseen, or at least unclear, from the OT. In reality, this dual coming emphasizes YHWH’s commitment to redeem all humanity (cf. Gen. 3:15; 12:3; Exod. 19:5 and the preaching of the prophets, especially Isaiah and Jonah).

The church is not waiting for the fulfillment of OT prophecy because most prophecies refer to the first coming (cf. How to Read the Bible For All Its Worth, pp. 165-166). What believers do anticipate is the glorious coming of the resurrected King of Kings and Lord of Lords, the expected historical fulfillment of the new age of righteousness on earth as it is in heaven (cf. Matt. 6:10). The OT presentations were not inaccurate, but incomplete. He will come again just as the prophets predicted in the power and authority of YHWH.

The Second Coming is not a biblical term, but the concept is the world-view and framework of the entire NT. God will set it all straight. Fellowship between God and mankind made in His image will be restored. Evil will be judged and removed. God’s purposes will not, cannot, fail!

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SPECIAL TOPIC: Illegalities of the Sanhedrin’s Night Trial, Matt. 26:57-68

A. No capital trials were to be held at night.

B. A capital trial and punishment must not occur on the same day.

C. No trials were to be held on a feast day or the eve of a feast.

D. This particular morning was reserved for the saying of phylacteries (cf. Deut. 6:8; 11:18).

E. This morning was also the time of the offering of gifts in the Temple (cf. Exod. 23:15).

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SPECIAL TOPIC: NULL AND VOID (KATARGEŌ)

This (katargeō) was one of Paul’s favorite words. He used it at least twenty-five times but is has a very wide semantic range.

A. It’s basic etymological root is from argos which meant

1. Inactive

2. Idle

3. Unused

4. Useless

5. Inoperative

B. The compound with kata was used to express

1. Inactivity

2. Uselessness

3. That which was cancelled

4. That which was done away with

5. That which was completely inoperative

C. It is used once in Luke to describe a fruitless, therefore useless, tree (cf. Luke 13:7)

D. Paul uses it in a figurative sense in two primary ways

1. God making inoperative things which are hostile to mankind

a. Mankind’s sin nature – Rom. 6:6

b. The Mosaic law in relation to God’s promise of “the seed” – Rom. 4:14; Gal. 3:17; 5:4,11; Eph. 2:15

c. Spiritual forces – I Cor. 15:24

d. The “man of lawlessness” – II Thess. 2:8

e. Physical death – I Cor. 15:26; II Tim. 1:16 (Heb. 2:14)

2. God replacing the old (covenant, age) for the new

a. Things related to the Mosaic Law – Rom. 3:3,31; 4:14; II Cor. 3:7,11,13,14

b. Analogy of marriage used of Law – Rom. 7:2,6

c. The things of this age – I Cor. 13:8,10,11

d. This body – I Cor. 6:13

e. Leaders of this age – I Cor. 1:28; 2:6

This word is translated so many different ways, but its main meaning is to make something useless, null and void, inoperative, powerless, but not necessarily non-existent, destroyed or annihilated.

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SPECIAL TOPIC: OT TITLES OF THE SPECIAL COMING ONE

A. Prophet – Deut. 18:15,18

B. King

1. from the tribe of Judah, Gen. 49:10; Ps. 60:7; 108:8

2. from the family of David, II Samuel 7 (from Jesse, Isa. 11:1)

3. from other texts, I Sam. 2:10; Ps. 89:3-4; Isa. 9,11; Jer. 30:8-9; Ezek. 37:21-22; Zech. 9:9-10

C. King/Priest

1. Psalm 110 (king, vv. 1-3; priest, v. 4)

2. Zech. 4:14 (the two olive trees, the two anointed ones, Zerubbabel [line of David] and Joshua [line of Aaron])

D. Anointed One (Messiah)

1. God’s King, Ps. 2:2; 45:7

2. Spirit’s presence, Isa. 11:2; 61:1

3. Coming One, Dan. 9:26

4. three OT leaders were anointed as a sign of God’s call and empowering: kings (cf. Jdgs. 9:8,15; I Sam. 2:10; 9:16; 24:10; II Sam. 19:21; 23:1; Ps. 18:50), priests (cf. Exod. 28:41; Lev. 4:3; 6:22) and prophets (cf. I Kgs. 19:16)

E. King’s Son

1. Ps. 2:7,12

2. Israel’s king as a symbol of God’s reign (cf. I Samuel 8)

F. Son of Man (Dan. 7:13)

1. human, Ps. 8:4; Ezek. 2:1

2. divine, Dan. 7:13

G. Special Redemptive Titles

1. Suffering Servant, Isa. 52:13-53:12

2. Suffering Shepherd, Zech. 12-14

3. Cornerstone, Ps. 118: Isa. 8:14-15; 28:16

4. Special Child, Isa. 7:14; 9:6-7; Micah 5:2

5. Branch, Isa. 4:2; 11:5; 53:2; Jer. 23:5-6; 33:15; Zech. 3:8; 6:12

The NT takes these scattered references about God’s special redemptive agent and clarifies and develops them into an understanding of Jesus as God’s Promised Coming One (e.g., Matt. 16:13-20; John 11:25-27). The two comings of the Messiah are the means by which these diverse functions and titles are united.

For a good discussion of the distinction in the Gospels between Son of Man as authority figure versus Suffering Servant, see George E. Ladd, A Theology of the New Testament, p. 149-158.

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SPECIAL TOPIC: INTERPRETING PARABLES

The Gospels were written many years after Jesus’ life. The Gospel writers (by the aid of the Spirit) were culturally accustomed to oral tradition. The rabbis taught by oral presentation. Jesus mimicked this oral approach to teaching. To our knowledge He never wrote down any of His teachings or sermons. To aid in the memory, teaching presentations were repeated, summarized and illustrated. The Gospel writers retained these memory aids. Parables are one of these techniques. Parables are hard to define:

“Parables are best defined as stories with two levels of meaning; the story level provides a mirror by which reality is perceived and understood.” taken from Dictionary of Jesus and the Gospels, (p. 594).

“A parable is a saying or story that seeks to drive home a point that the speaker wishes to emphasize by illustrating it from a familiar situation of common life.” taken from The Zondervan Pictorial Bible Encyclopedia” (p. 590).

It is hard to define exactly what was understood by the term “parable” in Jesus’ day

1. Some say it reflects the Hebrew term mashal which was any kind of riddle (Mark 3:23), clever saying (Proverbs, Luke 4:23), short saying (Mark 7:15) or mysterious saying (“dark saying”).

2. Others hold to a more limited definition of a short story.

Depending on how one defines the term, over one-third of Jesus’ recorded teachings are in parabolic form. This was a major NT literary genre. Parables are certainly authentic sayings of Jesus. If one accepts the second definition, there are still several different types of short stories

1. simple stories (Luke 13:6-9)

2. complex stories (Luke 15:11-32)

3. contrasting stories (Luke 16:1-8; 18:1-8)

4. typological/allegorical (Matt. 13:24-30, 47-50; Luke 8:4-8, 11-15; 10:25-37; 14:16-24; 20:9-19; John. 10; 15:1-8)

In dealing with this variety of parabolic material one must interpret these sayings on several levels. The first level would be general hermeneutic principles applicable to all biblical genres. Some guidelines:

1. identify the purpose of the entire book or at least the larger literary unit

2. identify the original audience. It is significant that often the same parable is given to different groups, example:

a. lost sheep in Luke 15 directed to sinners

b. lost sheep in Matt. 18 directed toward disciples

3. be sure to note the immediate context of the parable. Often Jesus or the gospel writer tells the main point (usually at the end of the parable or immediately after it).

4. express the central intent(s) of the parable in one declarative sentence. Parables often have two or three main characters. Usually there is an implied truth, purpose or point (plot) to each character.

5. check the parallel passages in the other Gospels, then other NT books and OT books.

The second level of interpretive principles are those that relate specifically to parabolic material

1. Read (hear if possible) the parable again and again. These were given for oral impact, not written analysis.

2. Most parables have only one central truth which is related to the historical and literary contexts of both Jesus and/or the evangelist.

3. Be careful of interpreting the details. Often they are just part of the setting of the story.

4. Remember parables are not reality. They are life-like analogies, but often exaggerations, to drive home a point (truth).

5. Identify the main points of the story that a first century Jewish audience would have understood. Then look for the twist or surprise. Usually it comes toward the end of the story (cf. A. Berkeley Mickelsen, Interpreting the Bible, pp. 221-224).

6. All parables were given to elicit a response. That response is usually related to the concept of “the Kingdom of God.” Jesus was the inaugurator of the new Messianic Kingdom (Matt. 21:31; Luke 17:21). Those who heard Him must respond to Him now!

The Kingdom was also future (Matthew 25). A person’s future was dependent on how he responded to Jesus at the time. Kingdom parables described the new kingdom that had arrived

in Jesus. They described its ethical and radical demands for discipleship. Nothing can be as it was. All is radically new and focused on Jesus!

7. Parables often do not express the point or central truth. The interpreter must seek the contextual keys that reveal the originally culturally obvious central truths but now obscure to us.

A third level that is often controversial is that of the hiddenness of parabolic truth. Jesus often spoke of the hiddenness of parables (cf. Matt. 13:9-15; Mark 4:9-13; Luke 8:8-10; John. 10:6; 16:25). This was related to the prophecy in Isa. 6:9-10. The heart of the hearer determines the level of understanding (cf. Matt. 11:15; 13:9,15,16,43; Mark 4:9,23,33-34; 7:16; 8:18; Luke 8:8; 9:44; 14:35).

However, it must also be stated that often the crowd (Matt. 15:10; Mark 7:14) and the Pharisees (Matt. 21:45; Mark 12:12; Luke 20:19) understood exactly what Jesus was saying but refused to respond appropriately to it by faith and repentance. In one sense this is the truth of the Parable of the Soils (Matthew 13; Mark 4; Luke 8).

The parables were a means to conceal or reveal truth (Matt. 13:16-17; 16:12; 17:13; Luke 8:10; 10:23-24).

Grant Osborne, in his Hermeneutical Spiral, p. 239, makes the point that “parables are an ‘encounter mechanism’ and function differently depending on the audience...Each group (leaders, crowds, disciples) is encountered differently by the parables.” Often even the disciples did not understand either His parables or His teachings (cf. Matt. 15:16; Mark 6:52; 8:17-18,21; 9:32; Luke 9:45; 18:34; John. 12:16).

A fourth level is also controversial. It deals with the central truth of parables. Most modern interpreters have reacted (justifiably so) to the allegorical interpretation of the parables. Allegory turned the details into elaborate systems of truth. This method of interpretation did not focus on the historical setting, literary setting or authorial intent, but presented the thought of the interpreter, not the text.

However, it must be admitted that the parables that Jesus interpreted are very close to allegorical or at least typological. Jesus used the details to convey truth (the Sower, Matthew 13; Mark 4; Luke 8 and the wicked tenants, Matthew 21; Mark 12, Luke 20).

Some of the other parables also have several main truths. A good example is the parable of the Prodigal Son (Luke 15:11-32). It is not only the love of the Father and waywardness of the younger son but the attitude of the older son that is integral to the full meaning of the parable.

A helpful quote from Linguistics and Biblical Interpretation by Peter Cotterell and Max Turner:

“It was Adulf Julicher more than any other who directed New Testament scholarship towards a decisive attempt to understand the role of parable in the teaching of Jesus. The radical allegorizing of the parables was abandoned and the search begun for a key that would enable us

to penetrate their true meaning. But as Jeremias made clear, ‘His efforts to free the parables from the fantastic and arbitrary interpretations of every detail caused him to fall into a fatal error.’ The error was to insist not merely that a parable should be understood as conveying a single idea, but that the idea should be as general as possible” (p. 308).

Another helpful quote from The Hermeneutical Spiral by Grant Osborne:

“Yet I have noted many indications that the parables are indeed allegories, albeit controlled by the author’s intention. Blomberg (1990) in fact argues that there are as many points as there are characters in the parables and that they are indeed allegories. While this is somewhat overstated, it is nearer the truth than the ‘one point’ approach” (p. 240).

Should parables be used to teach doctrinal truths or illuminate doctrinal truths? Most interpreters have been influenced by the abuse of the allegorical method of interpreting parables which allowed them to be used to establish doctrines that had no connection to Jesus’ original intent nor that of the gospel writer. Meaning must be linked to authorial intent. Jesus and the gospel writers were under inspiration, but interpreters are not.

However badly the parables have been abused they still function as teaching vehicles of truth, doctrinal truth. Hear Bernard Ramm on this point.

“Parables do teach doctrine and the claim that they may not be used at all in doctrinal writing is improper...we must check our results with plain, evident teaching of our Lord, and with the rest of the New Testament. Parables with proper cautions may be used to illustrate doctrine, illuminate Christian experience and to teach practical lessons.” Protestant Biblical Interpretation” (p. 285).

In conclusion let me give three quotes that reflect warnings in our interpretation of parables:

1. Taken from How to Read the Bible For All Its Worth by Gordon Fee and Doug Suart:

“The parables have suffered a fate of misinterpretation in the church second only to the Revelation” (p. 135).

2. Taken from Understanding and Applying the Bible by J. Robertson McQuilkin,

“Parables have been the source of untold blessing in enlightening God’s people

concerning spiritual truth. At the same time, parables have been the source of untold confusion in both doctrine and practice in the church” (p. 164).

3. Taken from The Hermeneutical Spiral by Grant Osborne,

“Parables have been among the most written about yet hermeneutically abused portions of Scripture...the most dynamic yet the most difficult to comprehend of the biblical genres. The potential of the parable for communication is enormous, since it creates a comparison or story based upon everyday experiences. However, that story itself is capable of many meanings, and the modern reader has as much difficulty interpreting it as did the ancient hearers” (p. 235).

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SPECIAL TOPIC: ORDER OF PASSOVER SERVICE IN FIRST CENTURY JUDAISM

A. Prayer

B. Cup of wine

C. Hand washing by host and passing of basin to all

D. Dip of bitter herbs and sauce

E. Lamb and main meal

F. Prayer and second dip of bitter herbs and sauce

G. Second cup of wine with question-and-answer time for children (cf. Exod. 12:26-27)

H. Singing of the first part of Hallel Psalm 113-114 and prayer

I. Master of ceremony makes sop for each one after washing his hands

J. All eat until filled; finish with a piece of lamb

K. Third cup of wine after washing hands

L. Singing second part of Hallel Psalm 115-118

M. Fourth cup of wine

Many believe that the institution of the Lord’s Supper occurred at “K.”

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SPECIAL TOPIC: PAUL’S ADMONITIONS TO SLAVES

1. Be content, but if an opportunity for freedom avails itself, take it (I Cor. 7:21-24)

2. In Christ there is no slave or free (Gal. 3:28; Col. 3:11; cf. I Cor. 12:13)

3. Work as unto the Lord; He will repay (Eph. 6:5-9; Col. 3:22-25; cf. I Pet. 2:18-20)

4. In Christ slaves become brothers (I Tim. 6:2; Philemon vv. 16-17)

5. Godly slaves bring honor to God (I Tim. 6:1; Titus 2:9)

Paul’s admonition to slave owners:

Christian slaves and slave owners have the same Master; therefore, they should treat each other with respect (Eph. 6:9; Col. 4:1)

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SPECIAL TOPIC: COMMON ELEMENTS OF PAUL’S DEFENSE

Common Elements	Paul before Mob	Paul before Sanhedrin	Paul before Felix	Paul before Festus	Paul before Agrippa II
1. His Jewish Background	22:3		24:14,17-18		26:4
2. His Pharisaic training and zeal	22:3	23:6-9	24:15,21		26:5-8
3. His Persecution of “The Way”	22:4-5				26:9-11
4. His Personal testimony of his conversion	22:6-16				26:12-16
5. His Call to specific ministry by God	22:17-22				26:17-23

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SPECIAL TOPIC: PAUL’S PRAISE, PRAYER, AND THANKSGIVING TO GOD

Paul was a man of praise. He knew the Old Testament. Each of the first four divisions (i.e., books) of the Psalter end with doxologies (cf. Ps. 41:13; 72:19; 89:52; 106:48). He praises and extols God in several different ways.

1. opening paragraphs in his letters

a. opening benedictions or greetings (cf. Rom. 1:7; I Cor. 1:3; II Cor. 1:2)

b. opening blessings (eulogētos, cf. II Cor. 1:3-4; Eph. 1:3-14)

2. short outbursts of praise

a. Rom. 1:25; 9:5

b. II Cor. 11:31

3. doxologies (characterized by use of [1] doxa {i.e., glory} and [2] “for ever and ever”)

a. Rom. 11:36; 16:25-27

b. Eph. 3:20-21

c. Phil. 4:20

d. I Tim. 1:17

e. II Tim. 4:18

4. thanksgivings (i.e., eucharisteō)

a. letter openings (cf. Rom. 1:8; I Cor. 1:4; II Cor. 1:11; Eph. 1:16; Phil. 1:3; Col. 1:3,12; I Thess. 1:2; II Thess. 1:3; Philemon v. 4; I Tim. 1:12; II Tim. 1:3)

b. call to give thanks (cf. Eph. 5:4,20; Phil. 4:6; Col. 3:15,17; 4:2; I Thess. 5:18)

5. short outbursts of thanksgiving

a. Rom. 6:17; 7:25

b. I Cor. 15:57

c. II Cor. 2:14; 8:16; 9:15

d. I Thess. 2:13

e. II Thess. 2:13

6. closing benedictions

a. Rom. 16:20,24(?)

b. I Cor. 16:23-24

c. II Cor. 13:14

d. Gal. 6:18

e. Eph. 6:24

Paul knew the Triune God theologically and experientially. In his writings he starts out with prayer and praise. In the middle of his presentations he breaks out in praise and thanksgiving. At the conclusion to his letters, he always remembers to pray, praise and thank God. Paul’s writing breathes with prayer, praise, and thanksgiving. He knew God, he knew himself, and he knew the gospel.

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SPECIAL TOPIC: PAUL’S USE OF “HUPER” COMPOUNDS

Paul had a special fondness for creating new words using the Greek preposition huper, which basically means “over” or “upper.” When used with the genitive (ablative) it means “in behalf of.” It can also mean “about” or “concerning,” like peri (cf. II Cor. 8:23; II Thess. 2:1. When used with the accusative it means “above,” “over,” or “beyond” (cf. A. T. Robertson, A Grammar of the Greek New Testament in the Light of Historical Research, pp. 625-633. When Paul wanted to accentuate a concept he used this preposition in a compound. Following is a list of Paul’s special use of this preposition in compounds.

A. Hapax legomenon (used only once in the NT)

1. Huperakmos, one past the prime of life, I Cor. 7:36

2. Huperauxanō, to increase exceedingly, II Thess. 1:3

3. Huperbainō, to overstep or transgress, I Thess. 4:6

4. Huperkeina, beyond, II Cor. 10:16

5. Huperekteina, overextend, II Cor. 10:14

6. Huperentugchanō, to intercede, Rom. 8:26

7. Hupernikaō, to be abundantly victorious, Rom. 8:37

8. Huperpleonazō, to be in exceeding abundance, I Tim. 1:14

9. Huperupsoō, to exalt supremely, Phil. 2:9

10. Huperphroneō, to have lofty thoughts, Rom. 12:3

B. Words used only in Paul’s writings.

1. Huperairomai, to exalt oneself, II Cor. 12:7; II Thess. 2:4

2. Huperballontōs, above measure, exceedingly, II Cor. 11:23; (adverb only here, but verb in II Cor. 3:10; 9:14; Eph. 1:19; 2:7; 3:19)

3. Huperbolē, an overshooting, an extraordinary armoring, Rom. 7:13; I Cor. 12:31; II Cor. 1:8; 4:7,17; 22:7; Gal. 1:13

4. Huperekperissou, beyond all measure, Eph. 3:20; I Thess. 3:10; 5:13

5. Huperlian, in the highest degree or pre-eminently, II cor. 11:5; 12:11

6. Huperochē, prominence, excellence, I Cor. 2:1; I Tim. 2:2

7. Huperperisseuō, to super abound, Rom. 5:20 (middle voice, to be abundantly filled, overflowing, II Cor. 7:4)

C. Words used by Paul and rarely in other NT writers

1. Huperanō, far above, Eph. 1:21; 4:10; and Heb. 9:5

2. Huperechō, excellence, pre-eminence, Rom. 13:1; Phil. 2:3; 3:8; 4:7; I Pet. 2:13

3. Huperēphanos, assuming or haughty, Rom. 1:30; II Tim. 3:2 and Luke 1:51; James 4:6; I Pet. 5:5.

Paul was a man of great passion; when things or people were good, they were very good and when they were bad, they were very bad. This preposition allowed him to express his superlative feelings about sin, self, and Christ and the Gospel.

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SPECIAL TOPIC: PAUL’S VIEWS OF THE MOSAIC LAW

It is good and from God (cf. Rom. 7:12,16).

A. it is not the way to righteousness and acceptance by God (it can even be a curse, cf. Galatians. 3).

B. it is still God’s will for believers because it is God’s self-revelation (Paul often quotes the OT to convict and/or encourage believers).

C. Believers are informed by the OT (cf. Rom. 4:23-24; 15:4; I Cor. 10:6,11), but not saved by the OT (cf. Acts 15; Romans 4; Galatians 3; Hebrews)

E. It functions in the new covenant to:

1. show sinfulness (cf. Gal. 3:15-29)

2. guide redeemed mankind in society

3. inform Christian ethical decisions

It is this theological spectrum from cursing and passing away to blessing and permanency that causes the problem in trying to understand Paul’s view of the Mosaic Law. In A Man in Christ, James Stewart shows Paul’s paradoxical thinking and writing:

“You would normally expect a man who was setting himself to construct a system of thought and doctrine to fix as rigidly as possible the meanings of the terms he employed. You would expect him to aim at precision in the phraseology of his leading ideas. You would demand that a word, once used by your writer in a particular sense, should bear that sense throughout. But to look for this from Paul is to be disappointed. Much of his phraseology is fluid, not rigid. . . ‘The law is holy’ he writes, ‘I delight in the law of God after the inward man’ (cf. Rom. 7:12,22) but it is clearly another aspect of nomos that makes him say elsewhere, ‘Christ had redeemed us from the curse of the law (cf. Gal. 3:13)” (p. 26).

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SPECIAL TOPIC: PEACE (different senses)

This Greek term originally meant “binding together that which was broken” (cf. John 14:27; 16:33; Phil. 4:7). There are three ways the NT speaks of peace:

1. an objective aspect, our peace with God through Christ (cf. Col. 1:20)

2. a subjective aspect, our being right with God (cf. John 14:27; 16:33; Phil. 4:7)

3. that God has united into one new body, through Christ, both believing Jew and Gentile (cf. Eph. 2:14-17; Col. 3:15). Once we have peace with God, it must issue in peace with others! The vertical must become the horizontal.

Newman and Nida, A Translator’s Handbook on Paul’s Letter to the Romans, p. 92, has a good comment about “peace.”

“Both in the Old Testament and in the New Testament the term peace has a wide range of meaning. Basically it describes the total well-being of a person’s life; it was even adopted among the Jews as a formula of greeting (shalom). This term had such a profound meaning that it could also be used by the Jews as a description of the Messianic salvation. Because of this fact, there are times when it is used almost synonymously with the term rendered ‘to be in a right relation with God.’ Here the term appears to be used as a description of the harmonious relation established between man and God on the basis of God’s having put man right with himself” (p. 92).

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SPECIAL TOPIC: PEACE AND WAR

I. Introduction

A. The Bible, our sole source for faith and practice, has no definitive passage on peace. In fact, it is paradoxical in its presentation. The OT may be alluded to as an approach to peace which is militaristic. The NT, however, puts the conflict into spiritual terms of light and darkness.

B. Biblical faith, as well as world religions of the past and present, sought and still expect, a golden age of prosperity which is absent from conflict.

1. Isaiah 2:2-4; 11:6-9; 32:15-18; 51:3; Hosea 2:18; Micah 4:3

2. Biblical faith prophesies the personal agency of the Messiah, Isa. 9:6-7

C. However, how do we live in a world of conflict? There have been three basic Christian responses which have developed chronologically between the death of the Apostles and the Middle Ages.

1. Pacifism, although rare in antiquity, it was the early church’s response to the Roman military society.

2. Just war, after the conversion of Constantine (a.d. 313) the church began to rationalize the military support of a “Christian state” in response to successive Barbarian invasions. This was basically the classical Greek position. This position was first articulated by Ambrose and expanded and developed by Augustine.

3. Crusade, this is similar to the Holy War concept of the OT. It developed in the Middle Ages in response to the Muslim advances in the “Holy Land” and ancient Christian territories such as North Africa, Asia Minor, and the Eastern Roman Empire. It was not on behalf of the state, but on behalf of the Church and under its auspices.

4. All three of these views developed in a Christian context with differing views on how Christians should relate to a fallen world system. Each emphasized certain Bible texts to the

exclusion of others. Pacifism tended to separate itself from the world. The “Just War” response has advocated the power of the state to control an evil world (Martin Luther). The

Crusade position has advocated that the Church attack the fallen world system so as to control it.

5. Roland H. Bainton, in his book, Christian Attitudes Toward War and Peace, published by Abingdon, page 15, says,

“The Reformation precipitated wars of religion, in which the three historic positions reappeared: the just war among the Lutherans and the Anglicans, the crusade in the Reformed Churches, and pacifism among the Anabaptists and later the Quakers. The eighteenth century in theory and in practice resuscitated the humanist peace ideals of the Renaissance. The nineteenth century was an age of comparative peace and great agitation for the elimination of war. The twentieth century has seen two world wars. In this period again, the three historic positions have recurred. The churches in the United States particularly took a crusading attitude toward the First World War; pacifism was prevalent between the two wars; the mood of the Second World War approximated that of the just war.”

D. The exact definition of “peace” has been disputed.

1. For the Greeks it seems to refer to a society of order and coherence.

2. For the Romans it was the absence of conflict brought about through the power of the state.

3. For the Hebrews peace was a gift of YHWH based on mankind’s proper response to Him. It was usually put in agricultural terms (cf. Deut. 27-28). Not only prosperity, but divine security and protection are included.

II. Biblical Material

A. Old Testament

1. Holy War is a basic concept of the OT. The phrase “kill not” of Exod. 20:13 and Deut. 5:17 in Hebrew refers to premeditated murder (BDB 953), not death by accident or passion or war. YHWH is even seen as a warrior on behalf of His people (cf. Joshua - Judges and Isa. 59:17, alluded to in Eph. 6:14).

2. God even uses war as a means of punishing His wayward people - Assyria exiles Israel (a.d. 722 ); Neo-Babylon exiles Judah (586 b.c.).

3. It is shocking, in such a militaristic atmosphere, to read of the “suffering servant” of Isaiah 53, which can be classified as redemptive pacifism.

B. New Testament

1. In the Gospels soldiers are mentioned without condemnation. The Roman “centurions” are mentioned often and almost always in a noble sense.

2. Even believing soldiers are not commanded to give up their vocation (early church).

3. The New Testament does not advocate a detailed answer to social evils in terms of political theory or action, but in spiritual redemption. The focus is not on physical battles, but on the spiritual battle between light and dark, goodness and evil, love and hate, God and Satan (Eph. 6:10-17).

4. Peace is an attitude of the heart amidst the problems of the world. It is related solely to our relationship with Christ (Rom. 5:1; John 14:27), not the state. The peacemakers of Matt. 5:9 are not political, but proclaimers of the gospel! Fellowship, not strife, should characterize the Church life, both to itself and to a lost world.

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SPECIAL TOPIC: PERSEVERANCE

The biblical doctrines related to the Christian life are difficult to explain because they are presented in typically eastern, dialectical pairs. These pairs seem contradictory, yet both poles are biblical. Western Christians have tended to choose one truth and ignore or depreciate the opposite truth. Some examples:

1. Is salvation an initial decision to trust Christ or a life-time commitment to discipleship?

2. Is salvation an election by means of grace from a sovereign God or a faith and repentant response on mankind’s part to a divine offer?

3. Is salvation, once received, impossible to lose, or is there a need for continual diligence?

The issue of perseverance has been contentious throughout church history. The problem starts with seemingly conflicting passages of the NT:

1. texts on assurance

a. statements of Jesus in John’s Gospel (John 6:37; 10:28-29)

b. statements of Paul (Rom. 8:35-39; Eph. 1:13; 2:5,8-9; Phil. 1:6; 2:13; II Thess. 3:3; II Tim. 1:12; 4:18)

c. statements of Peter (I Pet. 1:4-5)

2. texts on the need for perseverance

a. statements of Jesus in the Synoptic Gospels (Matt. 10:22; 13:1-9,24-30; 24:13; Mark 13:13)

b. statements of Jesus in John’s Gospel (John 8:31; 15:4-10)

c. statements of Paul (Rom. 11:22; I Cor. 15:2; II Cor. 13:5; Gal. 1:6; 3:4; 5:4; 6:9; Phil. 2:12; 3:18-20; Col. 1:23; II Tim. 3:2)

d. statements of the author of Hebrews (2:1; 3:6,14; 4:14; 6:11)

e. statements of John (I John 2:6; II John 9; Rev. 2:7,17,20; 3:5,12,21; 21:7)

Biblical salvation issues from the love, mercy, and grace of a sovereign Triune God. No human can be saved without the initiation of the Spirit. Deity comes first and sets the agenda, but demands that humans must respond in faith and repentance, both initially and continually. God works with mankind in a covenant relationship. There are privileges and responsibilities!

Salvation is offered to all humans. Jesus’ death dealt with the sin problem of the fallen creation! God has provided a way and wants all those made in His image to respond to His love and provision in Jesus.

If you would like to read more on this subject see

1. Dale Moody, The Word of Truth, Eerdmans, 1981 (pp. 348-365)

2. Howard Marshall, Kept by the Power of God, Bethany Fellowship, 1969

3. Robert Shank, Life in the Son, Westcott, 1961

The Bible addresses two different problems in this area: (1) taking assurance as a license to live fruitless, selfish lives or (2) encouraging those who struggle with ministry and personal sin. The problem is that the wrong groups are taking the wrong message and building theological systems on limited biblical passages. Some Christians desperately need the message of assurance, while others need the stern warnings of perseverance! Which group are you in?

There is a historical theological controversy involving Augustine versus Pelagius and Calvin versus Arminius (semi-Pelagian). The issue involves the question of salvation: if one is truly saved, must he persevere in faith and fruitfulness?

The Calvinists line up behind those biblical texts that assert God’s sovereignty and keeping-power (John 10:27-30; Rom. 8:31-39; I John 5:13,18; I Pet. 1:3-5) and verb tenses like the perfect passive participles of Eph. 2:5,8.

The Arminians line up behind those biblical texts that warn believers to “hold on,” “hold out,” or “continue” (Matt. 10:22; 24:9-13; Mark 13:13; John 15:4-6; I Cor. 15:2; Gal. 6:9; Rev. 2:7,11,17,26; 3:5,12,21; 21:7). I personally do not believe that Hebrews 6 and 10 are applicable, but many Arminians use them as a warning against apostasy. The parable of the Sower in Matthew 13 and Mark 4 addresses the issue of apparent belief, as does John 8:31-59. As Calvinists quote the perfect tense verbs used to describe salvation, the Arminians quote the present tense passages like I Cor. 1:18; 15:2; II Cor. 2:15.

This is a perfect example of how theological systems abuse the proof-texting method of interpretation. Usually a guiding principle or chief text is used to construct a theological grid by which all other texts are viewed. Be careful of grids from any source. They come from western logic, not revelation. The Bible is an eastern book. It presents truth in tension-filled, seemingly paradoxical pairs. Christians are meant to affirm both and live within the tension. The NT presents both the security of the believer and the demand for continuing faith and godliness. Christianity is an initial response of repentance and faith followed by a continuing response of repentance and faith. Salvation is not a product (a ticket to heaven or a fire insurance policy), but a relationship. It is a decision and discipleship. It is described in the NT in all verb tenses:

aorist (completed action), Acts 15:11; Rom. 8:24; II Tim. 1:9; Titus 3:5

perfect (completed action with continuing results), Eph. 2:5,8

present (continuing action), I Cor. 1:18; 15:2; II Cor. 2:15

future (future events or certain events), Rom. 5:8,10; 10:9; I Cor. 3:15; Phil. 1:28; I Thess. 5:8-9; Heb. 1:14; 9:28

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SPECIAL TOPIC: PERSONAL EVIL

This is a very difficult subject for several reasons.

1. The OT does not reveal an arch enemy to good, but a servant of YHWH who offers mankind an alternative and accuses mankind of unrighteousness.

2. The concept of a personal arch enemy of God developed in the inter-biblical (non-canonical) literature under the influence of Persian religion (Zoroastrianism). This, in turn, greatly influenced rabbinical Judaism.

3. The NT develops the OT themes in surprisingly stark, but selective, categories.

If one approaches the study of evil from the perspective of biblical theology (each book or author or genre studied and outlined separately), then very different views of evil are revealed.

If, however, one approaches the study of evil from a non-biblical or extra-biblical approach of world religions or eastern religions then much of the NT development is foreshadowed in Persian dualism and Greco-Roman spiritism.

If one is presuppositionally committed to the divine authority of Scripture, then the NT development must be seen as progressive revelation. Christians must guard against allowing Jewish folk lore or English literature (i.e., Dante, Milton) to further clarify the concept. There is certainly mystery and ambiguity in this area of revelation. God has chosen not to reveal all aspects of evil, its origin, its purpose, but He has revealed its defeat!

In the OT the term Satan (BDB 966) or accuser seems to relate to three separate groups.

1. human accusers (I Sam. 29:4; II Sam. 19:22; I Kgs. 11:14,23,25; Ps. 109:6)

2. angelic accusers (Num. 22:22-23; Zech. 3:1)

3. demonic accusers (I Chr. 21:1; I Kgs. 22:21; Zech. 13:2)

Only later in the intertestamental period is the serpent of Genesis 3 identified with Satan (cf. Book of Wisdom 2:23-24; II Enoch 31:3), and even later does this become a rabbinical option (cf. Sot 9b and Sanh. 29a). The “sons of God” of Genesis 6 become angels in I Enoch 54:6. They become the origin of evil in rabbinical theology. I mention this, not to assert its theological accuracy, but to show its development. In the NT these OT activities are attributed to angelic, personified evil (i.e., Satan) in II Cor. 11:3; Rev. 12:9.

The origin of personified evil is difficult or impossible (depending on your point of view) to determine from the OT. One reason for this is Israel’s strong monotheism (cf. I Kgs. 22:20-22; Eccl. 7:14; Isa. 45:7; Amos 3:6). All causality was attributed to YHWH to demonstrate His uniqueness and primacy (cf. Isa. 43:11; 44:6,8,24; 45:5-6,14,18,21,22).

Sources of possible information are (1) Job 1-2, where Satan is one of the “sons of God” (i.e., angels) or (2) Isaiah 14; Ezekiel 28, where prideful near eastern kings (Babylon and Tyre) are used to illustrate the pride of Satan (cf. I Tim. 3:6). I have mixed emotions about this approach. Ezekiel uses Garden of Eden metaphors not only of the king of Tyre as Satan (cf. Ezek. 28:12-16), but also for the king of Egypt as the Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil (Ezekiel 31). However, Isaiah 14, particularly vv. 12-14, seems to describe an angelic revolt through pride. If God wanted to reveal to us the specific nature and origin of Satan this is a very oblique way and place to do it. We must guard against the trend of systematic theology of taking small, ambiguous parts of different testaments, authors, books, and genres and combining them as pieces of one divine puzzle.

Alfred Edersheim (The Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah, vol. 2, appendices XIII [pp. 748-763] and XVI [pp. 770-776]) says that rabbinical Judaism has been overly influenced by Persian dualism and demonic speculation. The rabbis are not a good source for truth in this area. Jesus radically diverges from the teachings of the Synagogue. I think that the rabbinical concept of angelic mediation and opposition in the giving of the law to Moses on Mt. Sinai opened the door to the concept of an arch-angelic enemy of YHWH as well as mankind. There are two high gods of Persian (Zoroastrian) dualism, Ahkiman and Ormaza, good and evil. This dualism developed into a Judaic limited dualism of YHWH and Satan.

There is surely progressive revelation in the NT as to the development of evil, but not as elaborate as the rabbis proclaim. A good example of this difference is the “war in heaven.” The fall of Satan is a logical necessity, but the specifics are not given. Even what is given is veiled in apocalyptic genre (cf. Rev. 12:4,7,12-13). Although Satan is defeated and exiled to earth, he still functions as a servant of YHWH (cf. Matt. 4:1; Lk. 22:31-32; I Cor. 5:5; I Tim. 1:20).

We must curb our curiosity in this area. There is a personal force of temptation and evil, but there is still only one God and mankind is still responsible for his/her choices. There is a spiritual battle, both before and after salvation. Victory can only come and remain in and through the Triune God. Evil has been defeated and will be removed!

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SPECIAL TOPIC: THE PERSONHOOD OF THE SPIRIT

In the OT “the Spirit of God” (i.e., ruach) was a force which accomplished YHWH’s purpose, but there is no hint that it was personal (i.e., OT monotheism). However, in the NT the full personality and personhood of the Spirit is documented:

1. He can be blasphemed (cf. Matt. 12:31; Mark 3:29)

2. He teaches (cf. Luke 12:12; John 14:26)

3. He bears witness (cf. John 15:26)

4. He convicts, guides (cf. John 16:7-15)

5. He is called “who” (i.e., hos) (cf. Eph. 1:14)

6. He can be grieved (cf. Eph. 4:30)

7. He can be quenched (cf. I Thess. 5:19)

Trinitarian texts also speak of three persons.

1. Matt. 28:19

2. II Cor. 13:14

3. I Pet. 1:2

The Spirit is linked to human activity.

1. Acts 15:28

2. Rom. 8:26

3. I Cor. 12:11

4. Eph. 4:30

At the very beginning of Acts the Spirit’s role is emphasized. Pentecost was not the beginning of the work of the Spirit, but a new chapter. Jesus always had the Spirit. His baptism was not the beginning of the work of the Spirit, but a new chapter. Luke prepares the church for a new chapter of effective ministry. Jesus is still the focus, the Spirit is still the effective means and the Father’s love, forgiveness, and restoration of all humans made in His image is the goal!

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SPECIAL TOPIC: PETER, THE MAN

I. HIS FAMILY

A. Peter’s family lived in Galilee of the Gentiles in the city of Bethsaida on the northern shore of the Sea of Galilee (or the Sea of Tiberias cf. John 1:44), but apparently moved to Capernaum at some point (cf. Mark 1:21,29).

B. Peter’s father’s name was Jonah (cf. Matt. 16:17) or John (cf. John 1:42; 21:15-17).

C. His given name was Simon (cf. Mark 1:16,29,30,36), which was common in Palestine of the first century. It was the Jewish form of Symeon (cf. Acts 15:14; II Pet. 1:1).

Jesus renamed him Peter (Petros, which means “rock,” meant to describe his eventual strength and stability) in Matt. 16:18; Mark 3:16; Luke 6:14; and John 1:42. The Aramaic form is Cephas (cf. John 1:42; I Cor. 1:12; 3:22; 9:5; 15:5; Gal. 1:18; 2:9,11,14). Often in the NT these two names are given together (cf. Matt. 16:16; Luke 5:8; John 1:40; 6:8,68; 13:6,9,24,36; 18:10,15,25; 20:2,6; 21:2-3,7,11,15).

D. Peter’s brother’s name was Andrew (cf. Mark 1:16). He was a disciple of John the Baptist (cf. John 1:35,40) and later a believer and follower of Jesus (cf. John 1:36-37). He brought Simon to Jesus (cf. John 1:41). Several months later Jesus confronted them by the Sea of Galilee and called them to be His official full-time disciples (cf. Matt. 4:18-20; Mark 1:16-18; and Luke 5:1-11).

E. He was married (cf. Mark 1:30; I Cor. 9:5), but there is no mention of children.

II. HIS OCCUPATION

A. Peter’s family owned several fishing boats and even hired servants.

B. Peter’s family may have been partners with James, John, and their father, Zebedee (cf. Luke 5:10).

C. Peter briefly returned to fishing after Jesus’ death (cf. John 21).

III. HIS PERSONALITY

A. Peter’s strengths

1. He was a dedicated follower, but quite impulsive (cf. Mark 9:5; John 13:4-11).

2. He attempted acts of faith, but often failed (e.g., walking on water, cf. Matt. 14:28-31).

3. He was brave and willing to die (cf. Matt. 26:51-52; Mark 14:47; Luke 22:49-51; John 18:10-11).

4. After His resurrection, Jesus addressed him personally as the discredited leader of the Twelve in John 21 and provided an opportunity for repentance and restoration to leadership.

B. Peter’s weaknesses

1. He had initial tendencies toward Jewish legalism

a. eating with Gentiles (Gal. 2:11-21)

b. food laws (Acts 10:9-16)

2. He, like all the Apostles, did not fully understand Jesus’ radical new teachings and their implications

a. Mark 9:5-6

b. John 13:6-11; 18:10-11

3. He was personally and severely chastised by Jesus (Mark 8:33; Matt. 16:23)

4. He was found sleeping instead of praying in Jesus’ great hour of need in Gethsemane (Mark. 14:32-42; Matt. 26:36-46; Luke 22:40-60)

5. He repeatedly denied knowing Jesus (Mark 14:66-72; Matt. 26:69-75; Luke 22:56-62; John 18:16-18,25-27)

IV. HIS LEADERSHIP OF THE APOSTOLIC GROUP

A. There are four lists of the Apostles (cf. Matt. 10:2-4; Mark 3:16-19; Luke 6:14-16; Acts 1:13). Peter is always listed first. The Twelve were divided into three groups of four. I believe this allowed them to rotate home to check on their families.

B. Peter often serves as the spokesman for the Apostolic group (cf. Matt. 16:13-20; Mark 8:27-30; Luke 9:18-21). These passages have also been used to assert Peter’s authority within the group (cf. Matt. 16:18). However, within this very context he is chided by Jesus as a tool of Satan (cf. Matt. 16:23; Mark 8:33).

Also, when the disciples are arguing over who is greatest, Peter is not assumed to take that position (cf. Matt. 20:20-28, especially v. 24; Mark 9:33-37; 10:35-45).

C. Peter was not the leader of the Jerusalem church. This fell to James, Jesus’ half-brother (cf. Acts 12:17; 15:13; 21:18; I Cor. 15:7; Gal. 1:19; 2:9,12).

V. HIS MINISTRY AFTER JESUS’ RESURRECTION

A. Peter’s leadership role is clearly seen in the early chapters of Acts

1. He led in the election of Judas’ replacement (cf. Acts 1:15-26).

2. He preached the first sermon on Pentecost (cf. Acts 2).

3. He healed a lame man and preached the second recorded sermon (cf. Acts 3:1-10; 3:11-26).

4. He spoke boldly to the Sanhedrin in Acts 4.

5. He presided over the church discipline of Ananias and Sapphira in Acts 5.

6. He spoke at the Jerusalem Council in Acts 15:7-11.

7. Several other events and miracles are attributed to him in Acts.

B. Peter, however, did not always embody the gospel’s implications

1. He retained an OT mind-set (cf. Gal. 2:11-14).

2. He had to have a special revelation to include Cornelius (cf. Acts 10) and other Gentiles.

VI. THE SILENT YEARS

A. There is little or no information about Peter after the Jerusalem Council of Acts 15

1. Galatians 1:18

2. Galatians 2:7-21

3. I Corinthians 1:12; 3:22; 9:5; 15:5

B. Early church tradition

1. Peter’s being martyred in Rome is mentioned in Clement of Rome’s letter to the church at Corinth in a.d. 95.

2. Tertullian (a.d. 150-222) also notes Peter’s martyrdom in Rome under Nero (a.d. 54-68).

3. Clement of Alexandria (a.d. 200) says Peter was killed in Rome.

4. Origen (a.d. 252) says Peter was martyred by crucifixion, head down, in Rome.

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SPECIAL TOPIC: PHARISEES

I. The term had one of the following possible origins:

A. “To be separate.” This group developed during the Macaabean period. (This is the most widely accepted view).

B. “To divide.” This is another meaning of the same Hebrew root. Some say it meant an interpreter (cf. II Tim. 2:15).

C. “Persian.” This is another meaning of the same Aramaic root. Some of the doctrines of the Pharisees have much in common with Persian Zoroastrian dualism.

II. They developed during the Macaabean Period from the Hasidim (pious ones). Several different groups like the Essenes came out of the anti-Hellenistic reaction to Antiochus IV Epiphanes. The Pharisees are first mentioned in Josephus’Antiquities of the Jews 8.5.1-3.

III. Their major doctrines.

A. Belief in a coming Messiah, which was influenced by interbiblical Jewish apocalyptic literature like I Enoch.

B.God active in daily life. This was directly opposite from the Sadducees. Many Pharisaic doctrines were theological counterpoints to the doctrines of the Sadducees.

C. A physically oriented afterlife based on earthly life, which involved reward and punishment (cf. Dan. 12:2).

D. Authority of the OT and the Oral Traditions (Talmud). They were conscious of being obedient to the OT commands of God as they were interpreted and applied by schools of rabbinical scholars

(Shammai, the conservative and Hillel, the liberal). The rabbinical interpretation was based on a dialogue between rabbis of two differing philosophies, one conservative and one liberal. These oral discussions over the meaning of Scripture were finally written down in two forms: the Babylonian Talmud and the incomplete Palestinian Talmud. They believed that Moses had received these oral interpretations on Mt. Sinai. The historical beginning of these discussions started with Ezra and the men of the “Great Synagogue” (later called the Sanhedrin).

E. Highly developed angelology. This involved both good and evil spiritual beings. This developed from Persian dualism and the interbiblical Jewish literature.

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SPECIAL TOPIC: PONTIUS PILATE

I. The Man

A. Place and time of birth unknown

B. Of the Equestrian order (upper middle class of Roman society)

C. Married, but no known children

D. Earlier administrative appointments (of which there must have been several) unknown

II. His Personality

A. Two different views

1. Philo (Legatio and Gaium, 299-305) and Josephus (Antiq. 18.3.1 and Jewish Wars 2.9.2-4) depict him as a cruel and uncompassionate dictator.

2. The NT (Gospels, Acts) presents a weak, easily manipulated Roman procurator

B. Paul Barnett, Jesus and the Rise of Early Christianity, pp. 143-148, gives a plausible explanation of these two views.

1. Pilate was not appointed procurator in a.d. 26 under Tiberius, who was pro-Jewish (cf. Philo, Legatio and Gaium, 160-161) by the advice of Sejanus, Tiberius’ anti-Jewish, chief advisor.

2. Tiberius suffered a loss of political power to L. Aelius Sejanus, his praetorian prefect who became the real power behind the throne and who hated Jews (Philo, Legatio land Gaium, 159-160).

3. Pilate was a protege of Sejanus and tried to impress him by

a. bringing Roman standards into Jerusalem (a.d. 26), which other procurators had not done. These symbols of Roman gods inflamed the Jews (cf. Josephus’ Antiq. 18.3.1; Jewish Wars 2.9.2-3).

b. minting coins (a.d. 29-31) which had images of Roman worship engraved on them. Josephus says he was purposefully trying to overturn Jewish laws and customs (cf. Josephus, Antiq. 18.4.1-2).

c. taking money from the Temple treasury to build an aqueduct in Jerusalem (cf. Josephus, Antiq. 18.3.2; Jewish Wars 2.9.3).

d. having several Galileans killed while offering a sacrifice at Passover in Jerusalem (cf. Luke 13:12).

e. bringing Roman shields into Jerusalem in a.d. 31. Herod the Great’s son appealed to him to remove them, but he would not, so they wrote Tiberius, who demanded they be removed back to Caesarea by the sea (cf. Philo, Legatio and Gaium, 299-305).

f. having many Samaritans slaughtered on Mt. Gerizim (a.d. 36/37) as they searched for sacred objects of their religion, which had been lost. This caused Pilate’s local superior (Vitellius, Prefect of Syria) to remove him from office and send him to Rome (cf. Josephus, Antiq. 18.4.1-2).

4. Sejanus was executed in a.d. 31 and Tiberius was restored to full political power; therefore, #a, b, c and d were possibly done by Pilate to earn Sejanus’ trust; #e and f could have been attempts to earn Tiberius’ trust, but may have backfired.

5. It is obvious with a pro-Jewish emperor restored, plus an official letter to procurators from Tiberius to be kind to Jews (cf. Philo, Legatio and Gaium, 160-161), that the Jewish leadership in Jerusalem took advantage of Pilate’s political vulnerability with Tiberius and manipulated him to have Jesus crucified. This theory of Barnett brings the two views of Pilate together in a plausible way.

III. His Fate

A. He was recalled and arrived in Rome just after Tiberius’ death (a.d. 37).

B. He was not reappointed.

C. His life is unknown after this. There are many later theories, but no secure facts.

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SPECIAL TOPIC: POURED OUT

The general term cheō means “to pour.” The intensified form, ekcheō, has two developed connotations.

1. innocent blood shed, Matt. 23:35; Acts 22:20

2. a sacrifice given, Matt. 26:28; Mark 14:24; Luke 22:20

In Jesus these two senses meet at Calvary (cf. Colin Brown, ed., The New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology vol. 2, pp. 853-855).

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SPECIAL TOPIC: Practical Guidelines for How Believers Can Know Their Gift

Christ Himself, or rather the Trinity (cf. 4:4-6; I Cor. 12:4-6), gives spiritual gifts to His/their people. Believers are all gifted ministers. Some are leaders, but all are ministers.

There are several lists of spiritual gifts in Paul’s writing (cf. I Cor. 12: 8-10, 28-30; Rom. 12:6-8; Eph. 4:11). These lists are not identical. This implies that these lists are not exhaustive, but representative. For Paul the gifts are aspects of Jesus’ ministry given to His body (the church) to continue His ministry. The NT never gives a definitive list of the gifts or a guideline for believers’ knowing which gifts they are given. The focus is not on identifying gifts, but on the diverse aspect of ministry. One of the best practical guidelines for knowing one’s spiritual gift is found in an IVP booklet called “Affirming the Will of God” by Paul Little. The same guidelines for knowing God’s will apply to discovering one’s spiritual gift.

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SPECIAL TOPIC: PRAETORIAN GUARD

Originally the term, praetorian, referred to a Roman general’s tent (praetor), but after the age of Roman conquest it came to be used in an administrative sense to denote the headquarters or residence of the political/military administration (cf. Matt. 27:27; John 18:28,33; 19:9; Acts 23:35).

However, in the first century Roman world it was used for the officers who made up the special Imperial Guard. This elite group of soldiers was begun by Augustus but was finally concentrated in Rome by Tiberius. They

1. were all of the same rank, centurions

2. received double pay

3. had special privileges

4. became so powerful that their choice for Emperor was always honored.

It was not until the time of Constantine that this elite, politically powerful group was finally disbanded.

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SPECIAL TOPIC: PRAYER, UNLIMITED YET LIMITED

A. The Synoptic Gospels

1. believers are encouraged to persevere in prayer and God will provide “good things” (Matthew) or “His Spirit” (Luke) Matt. 7:7-11; Luke 11:5-13)

2. in the context of church discipline believers (two) are encouraged to unite in prayer (Matt. 18:19)

3. in the context of the judgment of Judaism believers are to ask in faith without doubting (Matt. 21:22; Mark 11:23-24)

4. in the context of two parables (vv. 1-8, the unrighteous judge and vv. 9-14, the Pharisee and the sinner) believers are encouraged to act differently from the godless judge and self-righteous Pharisee. God hears the humble and repentant (Luke 18:1-14)

B. John’s writings

1. in the context of the man born blind whom Jesus heals, the true blindness of the Pharisees is reveled. Jesus’ prayers (as anyone’s) are answered because He knew God and lived accordingly (John 9:31).

2. John’s Upper Room Discourse (John 13-17)

a. 14:12-14 – believing prayer characterized by

1) coming from believers

2) asking in Jesus’ name

3) desiring that the Father be glorified

4) keeping commandments (v. 15)

b. 15:7-10 – believers prayer characterized by

1) abiding in Jesus

2) His word abiding in them

3) desiring that the Father be glorified

4) producing much fruit

5) keeping commandments (v. 10)

c. 15:15-17 – believers’ prayer characterized by

1) their election

2) their fruit bearing

3) asking in Jesus’ name

4) keeping command to love one another

d. 16:23-24 – believers’ prayer characterized by

1) asking in Jesus’ name

2) desiring that joy be made full

3. John’s first letter (I John)

a. 3:22-24 – believers’ prayer characterized by

1) keeping His commandments (vv. 22,24)

2) living appropriately

3) believing in Jesus

4) loving one another

5) abiding in Him and He in us

6) having the gift of the Spirit

b. 5:14-16 – believers’ prayer characterized by

1) confidence in God

2) according to His will

3) believers pray for each other

C. James

1. 1:5-7 – believers confronted with various trials are called on to ask for wisdom without doubting

2. 4:2-3 – believers must ask with proper motives

3. 5:13-18 – believers faced with health problems are encouraged

a. to ask elders to pray

b. to pray in faith will save

c. to ask that their sins will be forgiven

d. to confess sin to one another and pray for one another (similar to I John 5:16)

The key to effective prayer is Christlikeness. This is what praying in Jesus’ name means. The worst thing God could do for most Christians is to answer their selfish prayers! In one sense all prayers are answered. The most valuable aspect of prayer is that the believer has spent time with God, trusting God.

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SPECIAL TOPIC: QUALIFICATIONS FOR FEMALE CHURCH WORKERS

A. dignified (3:11)

B. not malicious gossips (3:11)

C. temperate (3:11)

D. faithful in all things (3:11)

E. not supported by relatives (3:11)

F. hope fixed on God (5:5)

G. continues in prayer (5:5)

H. above reproach (5:7)

I. over sixty years old (5:9)

J. wife of one man (5:9)

K. reputation of good works (5:10)

1. raised children well (5:10)

2. showed hospitality to strangers (5:10)

3. washed the saints’ feet (5:10)

4. assisted those in distress (5:10)

5. devoted to every good work (5:10)

M. R. Vincent, Word Studies, vol. 2, pp. 752 and 1196, says that the Apostolical Constitutions, dating from the late second or early third century, makes a distinction between the duties and ordination of female church helpers.

A. deaconesses

B. widows (cf. I Tim. 3:11; 5:9-10)

C. virgins (cf. Acts 21:9 and possibly I Cor. 7:34)

These duties involved

A. caring for the sick

B. caring for those physically persecuted

C. visiting those in prison for the faith

D. teaching new believers

E. assisting in baptism of women

F. some overseeing of female church members

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SPECIAL TOPIC: RACISM

I. Introduction

A. This is a universal expression by fallen mankind within his society. This is mankind’s ego, supporting itself on the backs of others. Racism is, in many ways, a modern phenomena, while nationalism (or tribalism) is a more ancient expression.

B. Nationalism began at Babel (Genesis 11) and which was originally related to Noah’s three sons from which the so called races developed (Genesis 10). However, it is obvious from Scripture that humanity is from one source (cf. Genesis 1-3; Acts 17:24-26).

C. Racism is just one of many prejudices. Some others are (1) educational snobbery; (2) socio-economic arrogance; (3) self-righteous religious legalism; and (4) dogmatic political affiliations.

II. Biblical Material

A. Old Testament

1. Gen. 1:27 – Mankind, male and female, were made in the image and likeness of God, which makes them unique. It also shows their individual worth and dignity (cf. John 3:16).

2. Gen. 1:11-25 – Records the phrase, “. . .after their own kind. . .” ten times. This has been used to support racial segregation. However, it is obvious from the context that this refers to animals and plants and not to humanity.

3. Gen. 9:18-27 – This has been used to support racial dominance. It must be remembered that God did not curse Canaan. Noah, his grandfather, cursed him after awakening from a drunken stupor. The Bible never records that God confirmed this oath/curse. Even it He did, this does not affect the black race. Canaan was the father of those who inhabited Palestine and the Egyptian wall art shows they were not black.

4. Joshua 9:23 – This has been used to prove one race will serve another. However, in context, the Gibeonites are of the same racial stock as the Jews.

5. Ezra 9-10 and Nehemiah 13 – These have often been used in a racial sense, but the context shows that the marriages were condemned, not because of race (they were from the same son of Noah, Genesis 10), but for religious reasons.

B. New Testament

1. The Gospels

a. Jesus made use of the hatred between the Jews and Samaritans on several instances, which shows that racial hatred is inappropriate.

(1) the parable of the Good Samaritan (Luke 10:25-37)

(2) the woman at the well (John 4)

(3) the thankful leper (Luke 17:7-19)

b. The Gospel is for all humanity

(1) John 3:16

(2) Luke 24:46-47

(3) Hebrews 2:9

(4) Revelation 14:6

c. The Kingdom will include all humanity

(1) Luke 13:29

(2) Revelation 5

2. Acts

a. Acts 10 is a definitive passage on God’s universal love and the gospel’s universal message.

b. Peter was attacked for his actions in Acts 11 and this problem was not resolved until the Jerusalem Council of Acts 15 met and came to a solution. The tension between first century Jews and Gentiles was very intense.

3. Paul

a. There are no barriers in Christ

(1) Gal. 3:26-28

(2) Eph. 2:11-22

(3) Col. 3:11

b. God is no respecter of persons

(1) Rom. 2:11

(2) Eph. 6:9

4. Peter and James

a. God is no respecter of persons, I Pet. 1:17

b. Because God does not show partiality, then neither should His people, James 2:1

5. John

a. One of the strongest statements on the responsibility of believers is found in I John 4:20

III. Conclusion

A. Racism, or for that matter, prejudice of any kind, is totally inappropriate for God’s children. Here is a quote from Henlee Barnette, who spoke at a forum at Glorieta, New Mexico, for the Christian Life Commission in 1964.

“Racism is heretical because it is unbiblical and unchristian, not to mention unscientific.”

B. This problem gives Christians the opportunity to show their Christlike love, forgiveness and understanding to a lost world. Christian refusal in this area shows immaturity and is an opportunity for the evil one to retard the believer’s faith, assurance, and growth. It will also act as a barrier to lost people coming to Christ.

C. What can I do? (This section is taken from a Christian Life Commission tract entitled “Race Relations”

“ON THE PERSONAL LEVEL”

• Accept your own responsibility in solving the problems associated with race.

• Through prayer, Bible study, and fellowship with those of other races, strive to rid your live of racial prejudice.

• Express your convictions about race, particularly where those who stir up race hatred are unchallenged.

“IN FAMILY LIFE”

• Recognize the importance of family influence in the development of attitudes toward other races.

• Seek to develop Christian attitudes by talking over what children and parents hear about the race issue outside the home.

• Parents should be careful to set a Christian example in relating to people of other races.

• Seek opportunities to make family friendships across racial lines.

“IN YOUR CHURCH”

• By the preaching and teaching of biblical truth relating to race, the congregation can be motivated to set an example for the entire community.

• Be sure that worship, fellowship, and service through the church is open to all, even as the NT churches observed no racial barriers (Eph. 2:11-22; Gal. 3:26-29).

“IN DAILY LIFE”

• Help to overcome all racial discrimination in the world of work.

• Work through community organizations of all kinds to secure equal rights and opportunities, remembering that it is the race problem which should be attacked, not people. The aim is to promote understanding, not to create bitterness.

• If it seems wise, organize a special committee of concerned citizens for the purpose of opening lines of communication in the community for education of the general public and for specific actions in improving race relations.

• Support legislation and legislators in the passing of laws promoting racial justice and oppose those who exploit prejudice for political gain.

• Commend law enforcement officials for enforcing the laws without discrimination.

• Shun violence, and promote respect for the law, doing everything possible as a Christian citizen to make sure that legal structures do not become tools in the hands of those who would promote discrimination.

• Exemplify the spirit and mind of Christ in all human relationship.

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SPECIAL TOPIC: RANSOM/REDEEM

I. OLD TESTAMENT

A. There are primarily two Hebrew legal terms which convey this concept.

1. Ga’al (BDB 145, I), which basically means “to free by means of a price paid.” A form of the term go’el adds to the concept a personal intermediary, usually a family member (i.e., kinsman redeemer). This cultural aspect of the right to buy back objects, animals, land (cf. Leviticus 25,27), or relatives (cf. Ruth 4:15; Isa. 29:22) is transferred theologically to YHWH’s deliverance of Israel from Egypt (cf. Exod. 6:6; 15:13; Ps. 74:2; 77;15; Jer. 31:11). He becomes “the redeemer” (cf. Job 19:25; Ps. 19:14; 78:35; Pro. 23:11; Isa. 41:14; 43:14; 44:6,24; 47:4; 48:17; 49:7,26; 54:5,8; 59:20; 60:16; 63:16; Jer. 50:34).

2. Padah (BDB 804), which basically means “to deliver” or “to rescue”

a. the redemption of the firstborn (Exod. 13:13,14 and Num. 18:15-17)

b. physical redemption is contrasted with spiritual redemption (Ps. 49:7,8,15)

c. YHWH will redeem Israel from their sin and rebellion (Ps. 130:7-8)

B. The theological concept involves several related items.

1. There is a need, a bondage, a forfeiting, an imprisonment.

a. physical

b. social

c. spiritual (cf. Ps. 130:8)

2. A price must be paid for freedom, release, and restoration.

a. of the nation of Israel (cf. Deut. 7:8)

b. of the individual (cf. Job 19:25-27; 33:28)

3. Someone must act as intermediary and benefactor. In gaal this one is usually a family member or near kin (i.e., go’el, BDB 145).

4. YHWH often describes Himself in familial terms.

a. Father

b. Husband

c. Near Kin Redeemer/Avenger

Redemption was secured through YHWH’s personal agency; a price was paid, and redemption was achieved!

II. NEW TESTAMENT

A. There are several terms used to convey the theological concept.

1. Agorazō (cf. I Cor. 6:20; 7:23; II Pet. 2:1; Rev. 5:9; 14:3-4). This is a commercial term which reflects a price paid for something. We are blood-bought people who do not control our own lives. We belong to Christ.

2. Exagorazō (cf. Gal. 3:13; 4:5; Eph. 5:16; Col. 4:5). This is also a commercial term. It reflects Jesus’ substitutionary death on our behalf. Jesus bore the “curse” of a performance-based law (i.e., Mosaic Law. Cf. Eph. 2:14-16; Col. 2:14), which sinful humans could not accomplish. He bore the curse (cf. Deut. 21:23) for us all (cf. Mark 10:45; II Cor. 5:21)! In Jesus, God’s justice and love merge into full forgiveness, acceptance, and access!

3. Luō, “to set free”

a. Lutron, “a price paid” (cf. Matt. 20:28; Mark 10:45). These are powerful words from Jesus’ own mouth concerning the purpose of His coming, to be the Savior of the world by paying a sin-debt He did not owe (cf. John 1:29).

b. Lutroō, “to release”

(1) to redeem Israel (Luke 24:21)

(2) to give Himself to redeem and purify a people (Titus 2:14)

(3) to be a sinless substitute (I Pet. 1:18-19)

c. Lutrōsis, “redemption,” “deliverance,” or “liberation”

(1) Zacharias’ prophecy about Jesus, Luke 1:68

(2) Anna’s praise to God for Jesus, Luke 2:38

(3) Jesus’ better, once offered sacrifice, Heb. 9:12

4. Apolytrō sis

a. redemption at the Second Coming (cf. Acts 3:19-21)

(1) Luke 21:28

(2) Romans 8:23

(3) Ephesians 1:14; 4:30

(4) Hebrews 9:15

b. redemption in Christ’s death

(1) Romans 3:24

(2) I Corinthians 1:30

(3) Ephesians 1:7

(4) Colossians 1:14

5. Antilytron (cf. I Tim. 2:6). This is a crucial text (as is Titus 2:14) which links release to Jesus’ substitutionary death on the cross. He is the one and only acceptable sacrifice, the one who dies for “all” (cf. John 1:29; 3:16-17; 4:42; I Tim. 2:4; 4:10; Titus 2:11; II Pet. 3:9; I John 2:2; 4:14).

B. The theological concept in the NT.

1. Mankind is enslaved to sin (cf. John 8:34; Rom. 3:10-18; 6:23).

2. Mankind’s bondage to sin has been revealed by the OT Mosaic Law (cf. Galatians 3) and Jesus’ Sermon on the Mount (cf. Matthew 5-7). Human performance has become a death sentence (cf. Col. 2:14).

3. Jesus, the sinless lamb of God, has come and died in our place (cf. John 1:29; II Cor. 5:21). We have been purchased from sin so that we might serve God (cf. Romans 6).

4. By implication both YHWH and Jesus are “near kin” who act on our behalf. This continues the familial metaphors (i.e., father, husband, son, brother, near kin).

5. Redemption was not a price paid to Satan (i.e., Medieval theology), but the reconciliation of God’s word and God’s justice with God’s love and full provision in Christ. At the cross peace was restored, human rebellion was forgiven, the image of God in mankind is now fully functional again in intimate fellowship!

6. There is still a future aspect of redemption (cf. Rom. 8:23; Eph. 1:14; 4:30), which involves our resurrection bodies and personal intimacy with the Triune God. Our resurrected bodies will be like His (cf. I John 3:2). He had a physical body, but with an extra dimensional aspect. It is hard to define the paradox of I Cor. 15:12-19 with I Cor. 15:35-58. Obviously there is a physical, earthly body and there will be a heavenly, spiritual body. Jesus had both!

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SPECIAL TOPIC: REIGNING IN THE KINGDOM OF GOD

The concept of reigning with Christ is part of the larger theological category called “the Kingdom of God.” This is a carry-over from the OT concept of God as the true king of Israel (cf. I Sam. 8:7). He symbolically reigned (I Sam. 8:7; 10:17-19) through a descendant from the tribe of Judah (cf. Gen. 49:10) and the family of Jesse (cf. II Samuel 7).

Jesus is the promised fulfillment of OT prophecy concerning the Messiah. He inaugurated the Kingdom of God with His incarnation at Bethlehem. The Kingdom of God became the central pillar of Jesus’ preaching. The Kingdom had fully come in Him (cf. Matt: 10:7; 11:12; 12:28; Mark 1:15; Luke 10:9,11; 11:20; 16:16; 17:20-21).

However, the Kingdom was also future (eschatological). It was present but not consummated (cf. Matt. 6:10; 8:11; 16:28; 22:1-14; 26:29; Luke 9:27; 11:2; 13:29; 14:10-24; 22:16,18). Jesus came the first time as a suffering servant (cf. Isa. 52:13-53:12); as humble (cf. Zech. 9:9) but He will return as King of Kings (cf. Matt. 2:2; 21:5; 27:11-14). The concept of “reigning” is surely a part of this “kingdom” theology. God has given the kingdom to Jesus’ followers (see Luke 12:32).

The concept of reigning with Christ has several aspects and questions.

1. Do the passages which assert that God has given believers “the kingdom” through Christ refer to “reigning” (cf. Matt. 5:3,10; Luke 12:32)?

2. Do Jesus’ words to the original disciples in the first century Jewish context refer to all believers (cf. Matt. 19:28; Luke 22:28-30)?

3. Does Paul’s emphasis on reigning in this life now contrast or complement the above texts (cf. Rom. 5:17; I Cor. 4:8)?

4. How are suffering and reigning related (cf. Rom. 8:17; II Tim. 2:11-12; I Pet. 4:13; Rev. 1:9)?

5. The recurrent theme of Revelation is sharing the glorified Christ’s reign, but that reign is

a. earthly, 5:10

b. millennial, 20:5,6

c. eternal, 2:26; 3:21; 22:5 and Dan. 7:14,18,27

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SPECIAL TOPIC: THE REMNANT, THREE SENSES

The OT concept of “a faithful remnant” is a recurrent theme of the Prophets (mostly in the eighth century prophets and Jeremiah). It is used in three senses:

1. those who survived the Exile (e.g., Isa. 10:20-23; 17:4-6; 37:31-32; Jer. 42:15,19; 44:12,14,28; Amos 1:8)

2. those who remain faithful to YHWH (e.g., Isa. 4:1-5; 11:11,16; 28:5; Joel 2:32; Amos 5:14-15; Micah 2:12-13; 4:6-7; 5:7-9; 7:18-20)

3. those who are a part of the eschatological renewal and recreation (e.g., Amos 9:11-15)

In this context God chooses only some (those with a faithful zeal) of the remnant (survivors of the Exile) to return to Judah. As we have seen before in this chapter, themes from Israel’s past recur (v. 6). God is reducing the numbers so that He can show His power, provision, and care (e.g., Gideon, Jdgs. 6-7).

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SPECIAL TOPIC: RENEW (ANAKAINŌSIS)

This Greek term in its various forms (anakainoō, anakainizō) has two basic meanings.

1. “to cause something to become new and different (i.e., better)” – Rom. 12:2; Col. 3:10

2. “to cause a change to a previous preferable state” – II Cor. 4:16; Heb. 6:4-6

(taken from Louw and Nida’s Greek-English Lexicon, vol. 1, pp. 157, 594)

Moulton and Milligan, The Vocabulary of the Greek Testament, say that this term (i.e., anakkainōsis) cannot be found in Greek literature earlier than Paul. Paul may have coined this term himself (p. 34).

Frank Stagg, New Testament Theology, has an interesting comment.

“Regeneration and renewal belong to God alone. Anakkainōsis, the word for “renewal,” is an action noun, and it is employed in the New Testament, along with verb forms, to describe a continuing renewal, as in Romans 12:2, ‘Be ye transformed according to the renewing of your mind’ and 2 Corinthians 4:16, ‘Our inward man is being renewed day by day.’ Colossians 3:10 describes the ‘new man’ as ‘the one being renewed unto thorough knowledge according to the image of the one having created him.’ Thus the ‘new man,’ the ‘newness of life,’ the ‘regeneration,’ or ‘renewal,’ however designated, is traced to an initial act and a continuing act of God as the giver and sustainer of eternal life” (p. 118).

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SPECIAL TOPIC: REPENTANCE

Repentance (along with faith) is a covenant requirement of both the Old Covenant (Nacham, BDB 636, e.g., 13:12; 32:12,14; Shuv, BDB 996, e.g., I Kgs. 8:47; Ezek. 14:6; 18:30) and the New Covenant.

1. John the Baptist (Matt. 3:2; Mark 1:4; Luke 3:3,8)

2. Jesus (Matt. 4:17; Mark 1:15; Luke 5:32; 13:3,5; 15:7; 17:3)

3. Peter (Acts 2:38; 3:19; 8:22; 11:18; II Pet. 3:9)

4. Paul (Acts 13:24; 17:30; 20:21; 26:20; Rom. 2:4; II Cor. 2:9-10)

But what is repentance? Is it sorrow? Is it a cessation of sin? The best chapter in the NT for understanding the different connotations of this concept is II Corinthians 7:8-11, where three related, but different, Greek terms are used.

1. “sorrow” (lupē, cf. vv. 8 [twice], 9 [thrice], 10 [twice], 11). It means grief or distress and has a theologically neutral connotation.

2. “repentance” (metanoeō, cf. vv. 9,10). It is a compound of “after” and “mind,” which implies a new mind, a new way of thinking, a new attitude toward life and God. This is true repentance.

3. “regret” (metamelomai, cf. vv. 8[twice], 10). It is a compound of “after” and “care.” It is used of Judas in Matt. 27:3 and Esau in Heb. 12:16-17. It implies sorrow over the consequences, not over the acts.

Repentance and faith are the required covenant acts (cf. Mark 1:15; Acts 2:38,41; 3:16,19; 20:21). There are some texts which imply that God gives repentance (cf. Acts 5:31; 11:18; II Tim. 2:25). But most of the texts see this as a necessary human covenantal response to God’s offer of a free salvation.

The definitions of both the Hebrew and Greek terms are required to grasp the full meaning of repentance. The Hebrew demands “a change of action,” while the Greek demands “a change of mind.” The saved person receives a new mind and heart. He thinks differently and lives differently. Instead of “What’s in it for me?” the question is now “What is God’s will?” Repentance is not an emotion that fades or a total sinlessness, but a new relationship with the Holy One that transforms the believer progressively into a holy one.

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SPECIAL TOPIC: THE RESURRECTION

A. Evidence for the resurrection

1. Fifty (50) days later at Pentecost, the resurrection had become the key note of Peter’s sermon (cf. Acts 2). Thousands who lived in the area where it happened believed!

2. The lives of the disciples were changed radically from discouragement (they were not expecting resurrection) to boldness, even martyrdom.

B. Significance of the resurrection

1. Shows Jesus was who He claimed to be (cf. Matt. 12:38-40 prediction of death and resurrection)

2. God put His approval on Jesus’ life, teaching, and substitutionary death! (cf. Rom. 4:25)

3. Shows us the promise to all Christians (i.e. resurrection bodies, cf. I Corinthians 15)

C. Claims from Jesus that He would rise from the dead

1. Matt. 12:38-40; 16:21; 17:9,22, 23; 20:18-19; 26:32; 27:63

2. Mark 8:31; 9:1-10, 31; 14:28,58

3. Luke 9:22-27

4. John 2:19-22; 12:34; chapters 14-16

D. Further Study

1. Evidence That Demands a Verdict by Josh McDowell

2. Who Moved the Stone? by Frank Morrison

3. The Zondervan Pictorial Encyclopedia of the Bible, “Resurrection,” “Resurrection of Jesus Christ”

4. Systematic Theology by L. Berkhof, pp. 346, 720.

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SPECIAL TOPIC: RIGHTEOUSNESS

“Righteousness” is such a crucial topic that a Bible student must make a personal extensive study of the concept.

In the OT God’s character is described as “just” or “righteous” (BDB 841). The Mesopotamian term itself comes from a river reed which was used as a construction tool to judge the horizontal straightness of walls and fences. God chose the term to be used metaphorically of His own nature. He is the straight edge (ruler) by which all things are evaluated. This concept asserts God’s righteousness as well as His right to judge.

Man was created in the image of God (cf. Gen. 1:26-27; 5:1,3; 9:6). Mankind was created for fellowship with God. All of creation is a stage or backdrop for God and mankind’s interaction. God wanted His highest creation, mankind, to know Him, love Him, serve Him, and be like Him! Mankind’s loyalty was tested (cf. Genesis 3) and the original couple failed the test. This resulted in a disruption of the relationship between God and humanity (cf. Genesis 3; Rom. 5:12-21).

God promised to repair and restore the fellowship (cf. Gen. 3:15). He does this through His own will and His own Son. Humans were incapable of restoring the breach (cf. Rom. 1:18-3:20).

After the Fall, God’s first step toward restoration was the concept of covenant based on His invitation and mankind’s repentant, faithful, obedient response. Because of the Fall, humans were incapable of appropriate action (cf. Rom. 3:21-31; Galatians 3). God Himself had to take the initiative to restore covenant-breaking humans. He did this by

1. declaring mankind righteous through the work of Christ (i.e., forensic righteousness).

2. freely giving mankind righteousness through the work of Christ (i.e., imputed righteousness).

3. providing the indwelling Spirit who produces righteousness (i.e., Christlikeness, the restoration of the image of God) in mankind.

However, God requires a covenantal response. God decrees (i.e., freely gives) and provides, but humans must respond and continue to respond in

1. repentance

2. faith

3. lifestyle obedience

4. perseverance

Righteousness, therefore, is a covenantal, reciprocal action between God and His highest creation. Based on the character of God, the work of Christ, and the enabling of the Spirit, to which each individual must personally and continually respond appropriately. The concept is called “justification by faith.” The concept is revealed in the Gospels, but not in these terms. It is primarily defined by Paul, who uses the Greek term “righteousness” in its various forms over 100 times.

Paul, being a trained rabbi, uses the term dikaiosunē in its Hebrew sense of the term SDQ used in the Septuagint, not from Greek literature. In Greek writings the term is connected to someone who conformed to the expectations of Deity and society. In the Hebrew sense it is always structured in covenantal terms. YHWH is a just, ethical, moral God. He wants His people to reflect His character. Redeemed mankind becomes a new creature. This newness results in a new lifestyle of godliness (Roman Catholic focus of justification). Since Israel was a theocracy there was no clear delineation between the secular (society’s norms) and the sacred (God’s will). This distinction is expressed in the Hebrew and Greek terms being translated into English as “justice” (relating to society) and “righteousness” (relating to religion).

The gospel (good news) of Jesus is that fallen mankind has been restored to fellowship with God. This has been accomplished through the Father’s love, mercy, and grace; the Son’s life, death, and resurrection; and the Spirit’s wooing and drawing to the gospel. Justification is a free act of God, but it must issue in godliness (Augustine’s position, which reflects both the Reformation emphasis on the freeness of the gospel and Roman Catholic emphasis on a changed life of love and faithfulness). For Reformers the term “the righteousness of God” is an objective genitive (i.e., the act of making sinful mankind acceptable to God [positional sanctification], while for the Catholics it is a subjective genitive, which is the process of becoming more like God [experiential progressive sanctification]. In reality it is surely both!!)

In my view all of the Bible from Genesis 4 - Revelation 20 is a record of God’s restoring the fellowship of Eden. The Bible starts with God and mankind in fellowship in an earthly setting (cf. Genesis 1-2) and the Bible ends with the same setting (cf. Revelation 21-22). God’s image and purpose will be restored!

To document the above discussions note the following selected NT passages illustrating the Greek word group.

1. God is righteous (often connected to God as Judge)

a. Romans 3:26

b. II Thessalonians 1:5-6

c. II Timothy 4:8

d. Revelation 16:5

2. Jesus is righteous

a. Acts 3:14; 7:52; 22:14 (title of Messiah)

b. Matthew 27:19

c. I John 2:1,29; 3:7

3. God’s will for His creation is righteousness

a. Leviticus 19:2

b. Matthew 5:48 (cf. 5:17-20)

4. God’s means of providing and producing righteousness

a. Romans 3:21-31

b. Romans 4

c. Romans 5:6-11

d. Galatians 3:6-14

e. Given by God

1) Romans 3:24; 6:23

2) I Corinthians 1:30

3) Ephesians 2:8-9

f. Received by faith

1) Romans 1:17; 3:22,26; 4:3,5,13; 9:30; 10:4,6,10

2) II Corinthians 5:21

g. Through acts of the Son

1) Romans 5:21

2) II Corinthians 5:21

3) Philippians 2:6-11

5. God’s will is that His followers be righteous

a. Matthew 5:3-48; 7:24-27

b. Romans 2:13; 5:1-5; 6:1-23

c. I Timothy 6:11

d. II Timothy 2:22; 3:16

e. I John 3:7

f. I Peter 2:24

6. God will judge the world by righteousness

a. Acts 17:31

b. II Timothy 4:8

Righteousness is a characteristic of God, freely given to sinful mankind through Christ. It is

1. a decree of God

2. a gift of God

3. an act of Christ

But it is also a process of becoming righteous that must be vigorously and steadfastly pursued, which will one day be consummated at the Second Coming. Fellowship with God is restored at salvation but progresses throughout life to become a face-to-face encounter at death or the Parousia!

Here is a good quote to conclude this discussion. It is taken from Dictionary of Paul and His Letters from IVP

“Calvin, more so than Luther, emphasizes the relational aspect of the righteousness of God. Luther’s view of the righteousness of God seems to contain the aspect of acquittal. Calvin emphasizes the marvelous nature of the communication or imparting of God’s righteousness to us” (p. 834).

For me the believer’s relationship to God has three aspects.

1. the gospel is a person (emphasis of the Eastern Church and Calvin)

2. the gospel is truth (emphasis of Augustine and Luther)

3. the gospel is a changed life (Catholic emphasis)

They are all true and must be held together for a healthy, sound, biblical Christianity. If any one is over emphasized or depreciated, problems occur.

We must welcome Jesus!

We must believe the gospel!

We must pursue Christlikeness!

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SPECIAL TOPIC: SABBATH

This is from the Hebrew word meaning “rest” or “cessation.” It is connected to the seventh day of creation where God ceased His labor after finishing initial creation (cf. Gen. 2:1-3). God did not rest because He was tired, but because (1) creation was complete and good (cf. Gen. 1:31) and (2) to give mankind a regular pattern for worship and rest. The Sabbath begins like all the days of Gen. 1, at twilight; therefore, twilight on Friday to twilight on Saturday was the official time period. All the details of its observance are given in Exodus (especially chapters 16,20,31, and 35) and Leviticus (especially chapters 23-26). The Pharisees had taken these regulations and, by their oral discussions, interpreted them to include many rules. Jesus often performed miracles, knowingly violating their picky rules so as to enter into a dialogue with them. It was not the Sabbath that Jesus rejected or belittled, but their self-righteous legalism and lack of love.

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SPECIAL TOPIC: SADDUCEES

I. Origin of the Group

A. Most scholars believe the name comes from Zadok, one of David’s high priests (cf. II Sam. 8:17; 15:24). Later, Solomon exiled Abiathar for supporting the rebellion of Adonijah (cf. I Kgs. 2:26-27) and recognized Zadok as the only High Priest (cf. I Kgs. 2:35). After the Babylonian exile this priestly line was reestablished in Joshua (cf. Hag. 1:1). This Levitical family was chosen to administer the temple. Later those who were of this priestly tradition and their supporters were called Zadokites or Sadducees.

B. A ninth century a.d. rabbinical tradition (Aboth of Rabbi Nathan) says Zadok was a disciple of Antigonus of Sokho (2nd century b.c.), Zadok misunderstood a famous saying of his mentor involving “after dead rewards” and developed a theology that denied an afterlife and thereby also denied the resurrection of the body.

C. Later within Judaism the Sadducees are identified with the Boethusians. Boethus was also a disciple of Antigonus of Sokho. He developed a theology similar to Zadok, which also denied an afterlife.

D. The name Sadducee does not appear until the days of John Hyrcanus (135-104 b.c.), which is cited by Josephus (cf. Antiquities 13:10:5-6). In Antiquities 13:5:9 Josephus says there existed “three schools of thought,” Pharisees, Sadducees, and Essenes.

E. There is a rival theory that they came from the time of the Selucid rulers’ attempts to Hellenize the priesthood under Antiochus IV Epiphanes (175-163 b.c.). During the Maccabean revolt a new priesthood was started in Simon Maccabees (142-135 b.c.) and his descendants (cf. I Macc. 14:41). These new Hasmonean high priests were the possible start of the aristocratic Sadducees. The Pharisees developed during this same time from the Hasidim (i.e., “the separated ones,” cf. I Macc. 2:42; 7:5-23).

F. There is the modern theory (i.e., T. W. Manson), that Sadducee is a transliteration of the Greek term sundikoi. This term referred to local authorities who interfaced with Roman authority. This may explain why some Sadducees were not aristocratic priests, but were members of the Sanhedrin.

II. Distinctive Beliefs

A. They were the priestly conservative faction of the sects of Jewish life during the Hasmonean and Roman periods.

B. They were especially concerned with temple procedures, protocol, rituals, and liturgy.

C. They held to the written Torah (i.e., Gen. – Deut.) as authoritative, but rejected the Orad Tradition (i.e., Talmud).

D. They, therefore, rejected many of the cherished developed doctrines of the Pharisees

1. the resurrection of the body (cf. Matt. 22:23; Mark. 12:18; Luke 20:27; Acts 4:1-2; 23:8)

2. the immortality of the soul (cf. Antiquities 18.1.3-4; Wars 2.8.14)

3. the existence of an elaborate hierarchy of angels (cf. Acts 23:8)

4. they took the “eye-for-an-eye” (i.e., lex talionis) literally and supported physical punishment and the death penalty (instead of a monetary settlement)

E. Another area of theological dispute was predestination vs. free will. Of the three groups mentioned by Josephus

1. the Essenes affirmed a kind of determinism

2. the Sadducees placed an emphasis on human free will (cf. Antiquities 13.5.9; Wars 2.8.14)

3. the Pharisees held somewhat of a balancing position between the other two

F. In one sense the conflicts between the two groups (i.e., Sadducees - Pharisees) mirrored the tension between priests and prophets in the OT.

Another tension arose from the fact that the Sadducees represented the social and landed gentry. They were the aristocrats (cf. Josephus’ Antiquities 13.10.6; 18.1.4-5; 20.9.1), while the Pharisees and scribes were the scholars and pious among the people of the land. This tension could be characterized as the temple in Jerusalem vs. the local synagogues throughout the land.

Another tension may have represented the Sadducean rejection of the influence of Zoroastrianism on Pharisaic theology. Example: a highly developed angelology, a dualism between YHWH and Satan and an elaborate view of the afterlife in glowing physical terms. These excesses by the Essenes and Pharisees caused a reaction in the Sadducees. They return to the conservative position of Moses-only theology in an attempt to thwart the speculations of other Jewish groups.

II. Sources of Information

A. Josephus is the chief source of information about the Sadducees. He was biased both by his commitment to the Pharisees and his interests in portraying a positive image of Jewish life to the Romans.

B. The other source of information is the rabbinical literature. However, here, too, a strong bias is evident. The Sadducees denied the relevance and authority of the Oral Tradition of the Elders (i.e., the Talmud). These Pharisaic writings obviously describe their opponents in negative, possibly exaggerated (i.e., straw man, tactics) ways.

C. There are no known writings of Sadducees themselves which have survived. With the destruction of Jerusalem and the Temple in a.d. 70 all documents and influence of the priestly elite were destroyed.

They wanted to maintain regional peace and the only way to do that in the first century was to cooperate with Rome (cf. John 11:48-50).

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SPECIAL TOPIC: SAINTS

This is the Greek equivalent of the Hebrew kadash, which has the basic meaning of setting some one, some thing, or some place apart for YHWH’s exclusive use (BDB 871). It denotes the English concept of “the sacred.” YHWH is set apart from humanity by His nature (eternal non-created Spirit) and His character (moral perfection). He is the standard by which all else is measured and judged. He is the transcendent, Holy One, Holy Other.

God created humans for fellowship, but the fall (Genesis 3) caused a relational and moral barrier between a Holy God and sinful humanity. God chose to restore His conscious creation; therefore, He calls on His people to be “holy” (cf. Lev. 11:44; 19:2; 20:7,26; 21:8). By a faith relationship with YHWH His people become holy by their covenantal position in Him, but are also called on to live holy lives (cf. Matt. 5:48).

This holy living is possible because believers are fully accepted and forgiven through Jesus’ life and work and the presence of the Holy Spirit in their minds and hearts. This establishes the paradoxical situation of:

1. being holy because of Christ’s imputed righteousness

2. called to live holy because of the presence of the Spirit

Believers are “saints” (hagioi) because of (1) the will of the Holy One (the Father);(2) the work of the Holy Son (Jesus); and (3) the presence of the Holy Spirit.

The NT always refers to saints as plural (except one time in Phil. 4:12, but even then the context makes it plural). To be saved is to be part of a family, a body, a building! Biblical faith starts with a personal reception, but issues into a corporate fellowship. We are each gifted (cf. I Cor. 12:11) for the health, growth, and well-being of the body of Christ—the church (cf. I Cor. 12:7). We are saved to serve! Holiness is a family characteristic!

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SPECIAL TOPIC: GREEK VERB TENSES USED FOR SALVATION

Salvation is not a product, but a relationship. It is not finished when one trusts Christ; it has only begun! It is not a fire insurance policy, nor a ticket to heaven, but a life of growing Christlikeness. We have a proverbial saying in America that says the longer a couple lives together, the more they begin to look alike. This is the goal of salvation!

SALVATION AS A COMPLETED ACTION (aorist)

 Acts 15:11

‒ Romans 8:24

‒ II Timothy 1:9

‒ Titus 3:5

‒ Romans 13:11 (combines the aorist with a future orientation)

SALVATION AS A STATE OF BEING (perfect)

‒ Ephesians 2:5,8

SALVATION AS A CONTINUING PROCESS (present)

‒ I Corinthians 1:18; 15:2

‒ II Corinthians 2:15

‒ I Peter 3:21

SALVATION AS A FUTURE CONSUMMATION (future in verb tense or context)

‒ Romans 5:9,10; 10:9,13

‒ I Corinthians 3:15; 5:5

‒ Philippians 1:28;

‒ I Thessalonians 5:8-9

‒ Hebrews 1:14; 9:28

‒ I Peter 1:5,9

Therefore, salvation begins with an initial faith decision (cf. John 1:12; 3:16; Rom. 10:9-13), but this must issue in a process of lifestyle faith (cf. Rom. 8:29; Gal. 3:19; Eph. 1:4; 2:10), which will one day be consummated in sight (cf. I John 3:2). This final state is called glorification. This can be illustrated as

1. initial glorification—justification (saved from the penalty of sin)

2. progressive salvation—sanctification (saved from the power of sin)

3. final salvation—glorification (saved from the presence of sin)

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SPECIAL TOPIC: SALVATION (OT TERM)

This term (BDB 447) has several connotations.

1. welfare, prosperity, Job 30:15

2. divine salvation which encompasses both physical and spiritual aspects

a. Gen. 49:18

b. Deut. 32:15

c. Ps. 3:2,8; 22:1; 35:3; 62:2; 69:29; 70:5; 78:22; 80:3; 89:26; 91:16; 106:4; 140:7

d. Isa. 12:2; 33:2; 51:6,8; 52:7,10; 56:1; 59:11; 60:18; 62:1

3. the idea of physical and spiritual deliverance is clearly present in Jonah 2:9-10

4. often “rejoicing” is related to YHWH’s salvation, I Sam. 2:1; Isa. 25:9; 26:1; Ps. 9:14; 13:5; 35:9

Salvation involves the implementation of YHWH’s original intended fellowship and society with His human creatures. It involves individual and societal wholeness!

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SPECIAL TOPIC: SANCTIFICATION

The NT asserts that when sinners turn to Jesus in repentance and faith, they are instantaneously justified and sanctified. This is their new position in Christ. His righteousness has been imputed to them (cf. Romans 4). They are declared right and holy (a forensic act of God).

But the NT also urges believers on to holiness or sanctification. It is both a theological position in the finished work of Jesus Christ and a call to be Christlike in attitude and actions in daily life. As salvation is a free gift and a cost-everything lifestyle, so too, is sanctification.

Initial Response A Progressive Christlikeness

Acts 20:23; 26:18 Romans 6:19

Romans 15:16 II Corinthians 7:1

I Corinthians 1:2-3; 6:11 Ephesians 1:4; 2:10

II Thessalonians 2:13 I Thessalonians 3:13; 4:3-4,7; 5:23

Hebrews 2:11; 10:10,14; 13:12 I Timothy 2:15

I Peter 1:12 II Timothy 2:21

Hebrews 12:14

I Peter 1:15-16

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SPECIAL TOPIC: THE SANHEDRIN

I. Sources of Information

A. The New Testament itself

B. Flavius Josephus’ Antiquities of the Jews

C. The Mishnah section of the Talmud (i.e., Tractate “Sanhedrin”)

Unfortunately the NT and Josephus do not agree with the rabbinical writings, which seem to assert two Sanhedrins in Jerusalem, one priestly (i.e., Sadducean), controlled by the High Priest and dealing with civil and criminal justice and a second controlled by the Pharisees and scribes, concerned with religious and traditional issues. However, the rabbinical writings date from a.d. 200 and reflect the cultural situation after the fall of Jerusalem to the Roman general, Titus, in a.d. 70. The Jews reestablished their religious life at a city called Jamnia and later (i.e., a.d. 118) moved to Galilee.

II. Terminology

The problem with identifying this judicial body involves the different names by which it is known. There are several words used to describe judicial bodies within the Jewish community of Jerusalem.

A. Gerousia – “senate” or “council.” This is the oldest term which was used toward the end of the Persian period (cf. Josephus’ Antiquities 12.3.3 and II Maccabees 11:27). It is used by Luke in Acts 5:21 along with “Sanhedrin.” It may have been a way of explaining the term to Greek speaking readers (cf. I Macc. 12:35).

B. Synedrion – “Sanhedrin.” This is a compound from syn (together with) and hedra (seat). Surprisingly this term is used in Aramaic, but it reflects a Greek word. By the end of the Maccabean period this had become the accepted term to designate the supreme court of the Jews in Jerusalem (cf. Matt. 26:59; Mark 15:1; Luke 22:66; John 11:47; Acts 5:27). The problem comes when the same terminology is used of local judicial councils outside Jerusalem (cf. Matt. 5:22; 10:17).

C. Presbyterion – “council of elders” (cf. Luke 22:66). This is an OT designation for tribal leaders. However, it came to refer to the supreme court in Jerusalem (cf. Acts 22:5).

D. Boulē – This term “council” is used by Josephus (i.e., Wars 2.16.2; 5.4.2, but not the NT) to describe several judicial bodies: (1) the Senate in Rome; (2) local Roman courts; (3) the Jewish supreme court in Jerusalem; and (4) local Jewish courts. Joseph of Arimathea is described as a member of the Sanhedrin by a form of this term (i.e., bouleutēs, which means “counselor,” cf. Mark 15:43; Luke 23:50).

III. Historical Development

Originally Ezra is said to have set up the Great Synagogue (cf. Targum on Song of Songs 6:1) in the post-exilic period, which seems to have become the Sanhedrin of Jesus’ day.

A. The Mishnah (i.e., Talmud) records that there were two major courts in Jerusalem (cf. Sanh. 7:1).

1. One made up of 70 (or 71) members (Sand. 1:6 even states that Moses set up the first Sanhedrin in Num. 11, cf. Num. 11:16-25).

2. One made up of 23 members (but this may refer to local synagogue courts).

3. Some Jewish scholars believe there were three 23-member Sanhedrins in Jerusalem. When the three got together they, along with the two leaders, constituted “the Great Sanhedrin” of 71 members (i.e., Nasi and Av Bet Din).

a. one priestly (i.e., Sadducees)

b. one legal (i.e., Pharisees)

c. one aristocratic (i.e., elders)

B. In the post-exilic period, the returning Davidic seed was Zerubbabel and the returning Aaronic seed was Joshua. After Zerubbabel’s death, no Davidic seed continued, so the judicial mantle passed exclusively to the priests (cf. I Macc. 12:6) and local elders (cf. Neh. 2:16; 5:7).

C. This priestly role in judicial decisions is documented by Diodorus 40:3:4-5 during the Hellenistic period.

D. This priestly role in government continued during the Selucid period. Josephus quotes Antiochus “the Great” III (223-187 b.c.) in Antiquities 12.138-142.

E. This priestly power continued during the Maccabean period according to Josephus’ Antiquities 13.10.5-6; 13.15.5.

F. During the Roman period the governor of Syria (i.e., Gabinius from 57-55 b.c.) established five regional “Sanhedrins” (cf. Josephus’ Antiquities 14.5.4; and Wars 1.8.5), but this was later annulled by Rome (i.e., 47 b.c.).

G. The Sanhedrin had a political confrontation with Herod (i.e., Antiquities 14.9.3-5) who, in 37 b.c., retaliated and had most of the high court killed (cf. Josephus’ Antiquities 14.9.4; 15.1.2).

H. Under the Roman procurators (i.e., a.d. 6-66) Josephus tells us (cf. Antiquities 20.200,251) that the Sanhedrin again gained considerable power and influence (cf. Mark 14:55). There are three trials recorded in the NT where the Sanhedrin, under the leadership of the High Priest’s family, executes justice.

1. Jesus’ trial (cf. Mark 14:53-15:1; John 18:12-23,28-32)

2. Peter and John (cf. Acts 4:3-6)

3. Paul (cf. Acts 22:25-30)

I. When the Jews revolted in a.d. 66, the Romans subsequently destroyed Jewish society and Jerusalem in a.d. 70. The Sanhedrin was permanently dissolved, although the Pharisees at Jamnia

tried to bring a supreme judicial court (i.e Beth Din) back into Jewish religious (but not civil or political) life.

IV. Membership

A. The first biblical mention of a high court in Jerusalem is II Chr. 19:8-11. It was made up of (1) Levites; (2) priests; and (3) the heads of families (i.e., elders, cf. I Macc. 14:20; II Macc. 4:44).

B. During the Maccabean period it was dominated by (1) Sadducean priestly families and (2) local aristocracy (cf. I Macc. 7:33; 11:23; 14:28). Later in this period “scribes” (Mosaic lawyers, usually Pharisees) were added, apparently by Alexander Jannaeus’ wife Salome (76-67 b.c.). She is even said to have made the Pharisees the predominant group (cf. Josephus’ Wars of the Jews 1.5.2).

C. By Jesus’ day the court was made up of

1. the families of the High Priests

2. local men of wealthy families

3. scribes (cf. 11:27; Luke 19:47)

V. Sources Consulted

A. Dictionary of Jesus and the Gospels, IVP, pp. 728-732

B. The Zondervan Pictorial Encyclopedia of the Bible, vol. 5, pp. 268-273

C. The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge, vol. 10, pp. 203-204

D. The Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible, vol. 4, pp. 214-218

E. Encyclopedia Judaica, vol. 14, pp. 836-839

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SPECIAL TOPIC: SATAN

This is a very difficult subject for several reasons.

1. The OT reveals not an archenemy of good, but a servant of YHWH, who offers mankind an alternative and also accuses mankind of unrighteousness. There is only one God (monotheism), one power, one cause in the OT—YHWH.

2. The concept of a personal archenemy of God developed in the interbiblical (non-canonical) literature under the influence of Persian dualistic religions (Zoroastrianism). This, in turn, greatly influenced rabbinical Judaism and the Essene community (i.e., Dead Sea Scrolls).

3. The NT develops the OT themes in surprisingly stark, but selective, categories.

If one approaches the study of evil from the perspective of biblical theology (each book or author or genre studied and outlined separately), then very different views of evil are revealed.

If, however, one approaches the study of evil from a non-biblical or extra-biblical approach of world religions or eastern religions, then much of the NT development is foreshadowed in Persian dualism and Greco-Roman spiritism.

If one is presuppositionally committed to the divine authority of Scripture, then the NT development must be seen as progressive revelation. Christians must guard against allowing Jewish folklore or western literature (Dante, Milton) to further influence the concept. There is certainly mystery and ambiguity in this area of revelation. God has chosen not to reveal all aspects of evil, its origin, its development, its purpose, but He has revealed its defeat!

In the OT the term “satan” or “accuser” (BDB 966) can relate to three separate groups.

1. human accusers (cf. I Sam. 29:4; II Sam. 19:22; I Kgs. 11:14,20,29; Ps. 109:6)

2. angelic accusers (cf. Num. 22:22-23; Job 1-2; Zech. 3:1)

3. demonic accusers (cf. I Chr. 21:1; I Kgs. 22:21; Zech. 13:2)

Only later in the intertestamental period is the serpent of Genesis 3 identified with Satan (cf. Book of Wisdom 2.23-24; II Enoch 31:3), and even later does this become a rabbinical option (cf. Sot 9b and Sanh. 29a). The “sons of God” of Gen. 6 become angels in I Enoch 54:6. I mention this, not to assert its theological accuracy, but to show its development. In the NT these OT activities are attributed to angelic, personified evil (cf. I Cor. 11:3; Rev. 12:9).

The origin of personified evil is difficult or impossible (depending on your point of view) to determine from the OT. One reason for this is Israel’7:14; Isa. 45:7; Amos 3:6). All causality was attributed to YHWH to demonstrate His uniqueness and primacy (cf. Isa. 43:11; 44:6,8,24; 45:5-6,14,18,21,22).

Sources of possible information are (1) Job 1-2, where Satan is one of the “sons of God” (i.e., angels) or (2) Isaiah 14 and Ezekiel 28, where prideful near-eastern kings (Babylon and Tyre) are possibly used to illustrate the pride of Satan (cf. I Tim. 3:6). I have mixed emotions about this approach. Ezekiel uses Garden of Eden metaphors, not only for the king of Tyre as Satan (cf. Ezek. 28:12-16), but also for the king of Egypt as the Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil (Ezekiel 31). However, Isaiah 14, particularly vv. 12-14, seems to describe an angelic revolt through pride. If God wanted to reveal to us the specific nature and origin of Satan, this is a very oblique way and place to do it. We must guard against the trend of systematic theology of taking small, ambiguous parts of different testaments, authors, books, and genres and combining them as pieces of one divine puzzle.

I agree with Alfred Edersheim (The Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah, vol. 2, appendices XIII [pp. 748-763] and XVI [pp.770-776]) that rabbinical Judaism has been overly influenced by Persian dualism

and demonic speculation. The rabbis are not a good source for truth in this area. Jesus radically diverges from the teachings of the Synagogue in this area. I think that the concept of an archangelic enemy of YHWH developed from the two high gods of Iranian dualism, Ahkiman and Ormaza, and were then developed by the rabbis into a biblical dualism of YHWH and Satan.

There is surely progressive revelation in the NT as to the personification of evil, but not as elaborate as the rabbis. A good example of this difference is the “war in heaven.” The fall of Satan is a logical necessity, but the specifics are not given. Even what is given is veiled in apocalyptic genre (cf. Rev. 12:4,7,12-13). Although Satan is defeated in Jesus and exiled to earth, he still functions as a servant of YHWH (cf. Matt. 4:1; Luke 22:31-32; I Cor. 5:5; I Tim. 1:20).

We must curb our curiosity in this area. There is a personal force of temptation and evil, but there is still only one God and we are still responsible for our choices. There is a spiritual battle, both before and after salvation. Victory can only come and remain in and through the Triune God. Evil has been defeated and will be removed!

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SPECIAL TOPIC: SCHEMES

This is the Greek word noēma. It is used by Paul five times in II Corinthians and only one other time in Phil. 4:7. It is from the root nous, which means mind or thoughts. Paul develops this in two ways.

A. evil or destructive thinking

1. schemes of Satan, II Cor. 2:11

2. minds hardened and veiled in unbelief, II Cor. 3:14

3. minds blinded by Satan (the god of this world), II Cor. 4:4

4. minds deceived by Satan (like Eve) and led astray, II Cor. 11:3

B. godly thinking

1. taking every thought captive to the obedience of Christ, II Cor. 10:5

2. the peace of God which passes all comprehension (i.e., nous) will guard your hearts and your minds (i.e., noemata)

Human thinking and language skills are part of the image of God. These wonderful gifts can be used for good or evil. Believers must guard their thoughts and words. Our mind can be tricked, blinded, and manipulated by Satan. They can also be wonderfully energized by God to His glory and for His Kingdom. We are stewards of our thoughts, plans, and motives!

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SPECIAL TOPIC: SCRIBES

The title comes from the Hebrew noun (BDB 706) which means “a spoken message,” “a written document/decree.” The Greek translation “grammateus” usually refers to a written message. It can denote

1. educator (Nehemiah 8)

2. governmental official ( II Kgs. 22:3-13)

3. recorder/secretary (I chr. 24:6; II Chr. 34:13; Jer. 36:22)

4. military officer (cf. Jdgs. 5:14)

5. religious leader (Ezra 7:6; Neh. 12:12-13

In the NT they are often associated with the Pharisees. In a sense they were people who were educated in the OT and the Oral Traditions (i.e., Talmud). They helped interpret and apply the Jewish traditions to everyday life (cf. Sirah 39:6). However, their righteousness (i.e., Jewish legalism and ritual) could not bring peace with God (cf. Matt. 5:20; Rom. 3:19-20; 9:1-5,30-32; 10:1-6; col. 2:20-22).

They were often depicted in the Synoptic gospels (John never mentions them, 8:3 not original), as opposed to Jesus, although some did respond to Him (cf. Matt. 8:19).

1. conflict over eating with sinners and tax-collectors, Mark 2:16; Matt. 9:9-13

2. conflict over the source of Jesus’ authority in exorcisms, Mark 3:22

3. conflict over Jesus forgiving sin, Matt. 9:3; Luke 5:21

4. demand for a spectacular sigh, Matt. 12:38

5. conflict over hand washing (i.e., ceremonial washings), Matt. 15:1-2; Mark 7:1-5

6. conflict over the crowds’ affirmation at the triumphal entry into Jerusalem, Matt. 21:15

7. Jesus’ accusation of their motives (i.e., seeking honor and preeminence), mark 12:38-40

8. Jesus’ accusing them of being hypocrites and blind guides in Moses seat, Matt. 23:1=36

Because of their knowledge of Scripture, they should have been the first to recognize and embrace Jesus, but their traditions (cf. Isa. 29:13; 6:9-10) had blinded them! When light becomes darkness, how great is the darkness!

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SPECIAL TOPIC: SEAL

A seal may have been an ancient way of showing

1. truth (cf. John 3:33)

2. ownership (cf. John 6:27; II Tim. 2:19; Rev. 7:2-3)

3. security or protection (cf. Gen. 4:15; Matt. 27:66; Rom. 15:28; II Cor. 1:22; Eph. 1:13; 4:30)

4. it may also be a sign of the reality of God’s promise of a gift (cf. Rom. 4:11 and I Cor. 9:2).

The purpose of this seal is to identify God’s people so that the wrath of God will not affect them. Satan’s seal identifies his people, who are the object of God’s wrath. In Revelation “tribulation” (i.e. thlipsis) is always unbelievers persecuting believers, while wrath/anger (i.e. orgē or thumos) is always God’s judgment on unbelievers so that they might repent and turn to faith in Christ. This positive purpose of judgment can be seen in covenant curses/blessings of Deuteronomy 27-28.

The phrase “the living God” is a word play on the title YHWH (cf. Exod. 3:14; Ps. 42:2; 84:2; Matt. 16:16). This same word play is often found in biblical oaths, “as the Lord lives.”

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SPECIAL TOPIC: THE SECOND COMING

This is literally “until the parousia,” which means “presence,” and was used of a royal visit. The other NT terms used for the Second Coming are (1) epiphaneia, “face to face appearing”; (2) apokalupis, “unveiling”; and (3) “the Day of the Lord” and the variations of this phrase.

The NT as a whole is written within the world-view of the OT, which asserted

1. a current evil, rebellious age

2. a coming new age of righteousness

3. this would be brought about by the Spirit’s agency through the work of the Messiah (Anointed One)

The theological assumption of progressive revelation is required because the NT authors slightly modify Israel’s expectation. Instead of a military, nationalistic-focused (Israel) coming of the Messiah, there are two comings. The first coming was the incarnation of deity in the conception and birth of Jesus of Nazareth. He came as the non-military, non-judicial “suffering servant” of Isaiah 53; also the mild rider on the colt of a donkey (not a war horse or kingly mule), of Zech. 9:9. The first coming inaugurated the New Messianic Age, the Kingdom of God on earth. In one sense the Kingdom is here, but of course, in another it is still far off. It is this tension between the two comings of the Messiah which, in a sense, is the over-lapping of the two Jewish ages that was unseen, or at least unclear, from the OT. In reality, this dual coming emphasizes YHWH’s commitment to redeem all humanity (cf. Gen. 3:15; 12:3; Exod. 19:5 and the preaching of the prophets, especially Isaiah and Jonah).

The Second Coming is not a biblical term, but the concept forms the world-view and framework of the entire NT. God will set it all straight. Fellowship between God and mankind made in His image will be restored. Evil will be judged and removed. God’s purposes will not, cannot, fail!

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SPECIAL TOPIC: SEND (APOSTELLŌ)

This is a common Greek word for “send” (i.e., apostellō) This term has several theological usages:

1. the rabbis used it as one called and sent as an official representative of another, something like our English “ambassador” (cf. II Cor. 5:20)

2. the Gospels often use this term of Jesus being sent by the Father. In John the term takes on Messianic overtones (cf. Matt. 10:40; 15:24; Mark 9:37; Luke 9:48 and especially John 4:34; 5:24,30,36,37,38; 6:29,38,39,40,57; 7:29; 8:42; 10:36; 11:42; 17:3,8,18,21,23,25; 20:21). It is used of Jesus sending believers (cf. John 17:18; 20:21)

3. the NT used it for disciples

a. the original twelve inner circle of disciples (cf. Luke 6:13; Acts 1:21-22)

b. a special group of Apostolic helpers and co-workers

(1) Barnabas (cf. Acts 14:4,14)

(2) Andronicus and Junias (KJV, Junia, cf. Rom. 16:7)

(3) Apollos (cf. I Cor. 4:6-9)

(4) James the Lord’s brother (cf. Gal. 1:19)

(5) Silvanus and Timothy (cf. I Thess. 2:6)

(6) possibly Titus (cf. II Cor. 8:23)

(7) possibly Epaphroditus (cf. Phil. 2:25)

c. an ongoing gift in the church (cf. I Cor. 12:28-29; Eph. 4:11)

4. Paul uses this title for himself in most of his letters as a way of asserting his God-given authority as Christ’s representative (cf. Rom. 1:1; I Cor. 1:1; II Cor. 1:1; Gal. 1:1; Eph. 1:1; Col. 1:1; I Tim. 1:1; II Tim. 1:1; Titus 1:1).

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SPECIAL TOPIC: SERVANT LEADERSHIP

God’s leaders are gifts to the church (Eph. 4:11), but they are still servants, not bosses! Paul uses several terms to address the idea of servant/minister in the Corinthian letters.

1. domestic help (originally “to raise dust”)

a. diakonos, I Cor. 3:5; II Cor. 3:6; 6:4; 11:15 (twice), 23

b. diakonia, I Cor. 16:15; II Cor. 3:7,8,9 (twice); 4:1; 5:18; 6:3; 8:4; 9:1,13; 11:8

c. dialoneō, II Cor. 3:3

2. servant or assistant, hupēretēs (in the NT it is used of many different types of attendants), I Cor. 4:1

3. slave (one who is owned and directed by another)

a. doulos, I Cor. 7:21,22 (twice),23; II Cor. 4:5

b. douloō, I Cor. 9:19

4. co-worker, co-helper (compound of sun + worker), sunergos, II Cor. 1:24

5. supplier (originally one who funds a chorus)

a. chorēgeō, II Cor. 9:10

b. epichorēgeō, II Cor. 9:10

6. minister (used in the Septuagint of Joseph to Potiphar, Joshua to Moses, Samuel to Eli, Abishag to David and of the Levites to Israel (i.e., the general term for service in the Septuagint), leitourgia,

II Cor. 9:12

All of these terms show Paul’s understanding of ministry. Believers belong to Christ. As Christ served others (cf. Mark 10:45), believers serve others (cf. I John 3:16). Church leadership is servant leadership (cf. Matt. 20:20-28; Mark 10:32-45; Luke 22:24-27). These arrogant, prideful factions had totally misunderstood the gospel and failed to comprehend the heart and ministry of Jesus!

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SPECIAL TOPIC: SHADOW AS METAPHOR FOR PROTECTION AND CARE

The idiom of “shadow” was common in the ANE. Note the examples in the Bible.

1. idiom of protection, Isa. 16:3; 30:2-3; Lam. 4:20

2. idiom of “shadow of the hand,” Ps. 121:5; Isa. 49:2; 51:16

3. idiom of “shadow of the roof,” Gen. 19:8

4. idiom of “shadow of God’s special cloud,” cf. Exod. 13:21-22; 14:19,20,24; Isa. 4:6; 25:4-5; 32:1-2

5. idiom of “shadow of the wing,” Ps. 17:8; 36:7; 57:1; 61:4; 63:7; 91:1,4 (similar metaphors in Deut. 32:10-11; Ruth 2:12; Isa. 31:5; Matt. 23:37; Luke 13:34)

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6. idiom of “shadow of a tree,” Jdgs. 9:15; Ezek. 17:23; 31:6,17; Dan. 4:12; Hosea 14:7

SPECIAL TOPIC: SHOULD CHRISTIANS JUDGE ONE ANOTHER?

This issue must be dealt with in two ways.

1. believers are admonished not to judge one another (cf. Matt. 7:1-5; Luke 6:37,42; Rom. 2:1-11; James 4:11-12)

2. believers are admonished to evaluate leaders (cf. Matt. 7:6,15-16; I Cor. 14:29; I Thess. 5:21; I Tim. 3:1-13; and I John 4:1-6)

Some criteria for proper evaluation may be helpful.

1. evaluation should be for the purpose of affirmation (cf. I John 4:1 – “test” with a view toward approval)

2. evaluation should be done in humility and gentleness (cf. Gal. 6:1)

3. evaluation must not focus on personal preference issues (cf. Rom. 14:1-23; I Cor. 8:1-13; 10:23-33)

4. evaluation should identify those leaders who have “no handle for criticism” from within the church or the community (cf. I Timothy 3).

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SPECIAL TOPIC: WHAT IS SIN UNTO DEATH?

A. Hermeneutical considerations

1. proper identification must be related to the historical setting of I John

a. the presence of gnostic false teachers in the churches (cf. 2:19,26; 3:7; II John 7)

(1) “Cerinthian” Gnostics taught that the man Jesus received the Christ spirit at his baptism and that the Christ spirit left before his death on the cross (cf. 5:6-8)

(2) docetic Gnostics taught that Jesus was a divine spirit, not a true human being (cf. 1:1-3)

(3) Gnosticism revealed in the writings of the second century reflected two different views about the human body

(a) since salvation was a truth revealed to the mind, the human body was irrelevant to the spiritual realm. Therefore, whatever it desired it could have. These are often referred to as antinomian or libertine Gnostics.

(b) the other group concluded that since the body was inherently evil (i.e. Greek thought), any bodily desire should be shunned. These are called ascetic Gnostics.

b. these false teachers had left the church (cf. 2:19), but their influence had not!

2. proper identification must be related to the literary context of the whole book

a. I John was written to combat false teaching and assure the true believers

b. these two purposes can be seen in the tests of true believers

(1) doctrinal

(a) Jesus was truly human (cf. 1:1-3; 4:14)

(b) Jesus was truly God (cf. 1:2; 5:20)

(d) humans are also forgiven and made right with God by

i. Jesus’ death (cf. 1:7; 2:1-2; 3:16; 4:9-10,14; 5:6-8)

ii. faith in Jesus (cf. 1:9; 3:23; 4:15; 5:1,4-5,10-12,13)

(2) practical (positive)

(a) lifestyle obedience (cf. 2:3-5; 3:22,24; 5:2-3)

(b) lifestyle love (2:10; 3:11,14,18,23; 4:7,11-12,16-18,21)

(d) lifestyle victory over evil (cf. 2:13,14; 4:4; 5:4)

(e) His word abides in them (cf. 1:10; 2:14)

(f) they have the Spirit (cf. 3:24; 4:4-6,13)

(g) answered prayer (cf 5:14-15)

(3) practical (negative)

(a) lifestyle sin (cf. 3:8-10)

(b) lifestyle hate (cf. 2:9,11; 3:15; 4:20)

(d) love the world (cf. 2:15-16)

(e) deny Christ (denies Father and Son, cf. 2:22-23; 4:2-3; 5:10-12)

3. proper identification must be linked to specific items in the relevant text (cf. 5:16-17)

a. does the term “brother” of v. 16 relate to both those committing a sin not leading to death and to those committing a sin leading to death?

b. were the offenders once members of the church (cf. 2:19)?

c. what is the textual significance of:

(1) no article with “sin”?

(2) the verb “sees” as a third class conditional with aorist active subjunctive?

d. how can the prayers of one Christian (cf. James 5:15-16) restore eternal life “zōē” to another without the sinner’s personal repentance?

e. how does v. 17 relate to the types of sin (unto death, not unto death)?

B. Theological problems

1. should an interpreter try to link this text with

a. the “unpardonable” sin of the Gospels

b. the “once out” sin of Hebrews 6 and 10

The context of I John does seem parallel to the unpardonable sin of the Pharisees in Jesus’ day (cf. Matt. 12:22-37; Mark 3:2-29) as well as the unbelieving Jews of Hebrews 6 and 10. All three groups (Pharisees, unbelieving Jews, and Gnostic false teachers) heard the gospel clearly, but refused to trust Jesus Christ.

2. should modern denominational questions be a theological grid to view this text?

Evangelicalism has overemphasized the beginning of the Christian experience and neglected the ongoing lifestyle evidences of true faith. Our modern theological questions would have shocked first century Christians. We want “certainty” based on selected biblical “proof-texts” and our own logical deductions or denominational biases.

Our theological questions, grids, and distinctives reflect our own insecurities. We want more information and clarification than the Bible provides, so our systematic theologies take some small chunks of Scripture and weave huge webs of logical, western, specific doctrines!

Jesus’ words in Matthew 7 and Mark 7 were adequate for the early church! Jesus looks for disciples, not decisions, long term lifestyle faith, not short-term emotional faith (cf. Matt. 13:10-23; John 8:31-59). Christianity is not an isolated past act, but an ongoing repentance, faith, obedience, and perseverance. Christianity is not a ticket to heaven, purchased in the past, nor a fire insurance policy taken out to protect one from a lifestyle of selfish, godless living!

3. Does the sin unto death refer to physical death or eternal death? John’s use of zōē in this context implies the contrast refers to eternal death. Is it possible that God takes home (physical death)

sinning children? The implication of this context is that (1) the prayers of fellow believers and (2) the personal repentance of the offender combine to restore the believers, but if they continue in a lifestyle that brings reproach on the believing community, then the result may be an “untimely” or early physical departure from this life (cf. When Critics Ask by Norman Geisler and Thomas Howe, p. 541)

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SPECIAL TOPIC: SILAS/SILVANUS

Silas, or Silvanus, was the man Paul chose to go with him on the second missionary journey after Barnabas and John Mark went back to Cyprus:

A. He is first mentioned in the Bible in Acts 15:22 where he is called a chief man among the brethren of the Jerusalem Church.

B. He was also a prophet (cf. Acts 15:32).

C. He was a Roman citizen like Paul (cf. Acts 16:37).

D. He and Judas Barsabbas were sent to Antioch by the Jerusalem Church to inspect the situation (cf. Acts 15:22,30-35).

E. Paul mentions him in II Cor. 1:19 as a fellow gospel preacher.

F. Later he is identified with Peter in writing I Peter. (cf. I Pet. 5:12).

G. Both Paul and Peter call him Silvanus while Luke calls him Silas (the Aramaic form of Saul). It is possible that Silas was his Jewish name and Silvanus his Latin name (cf. F. F. Bruce, Paul: Apostle of the Heart Set Free, p. 213).

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SPECIAL TOPIC: “SON OF. . .”

The term “son” (or “children of. . .”) is often used to characterize a group (or individual) or show one’s inclusion in a group.

A. Characterization of a group

1. positive

a. sons of the Kingdom, Matt. 8:12; 13:38

b. sons of men, Mark 3:28; Eph. 3:5

c. sons of light, Luke 16:8; John 12:36; Eph. 5:8; I Thess. 5:5

d. sons of the resurrection, Luke 20:36

e. sons of the Prophets, Acts 3:25

f. sons of the covenant, Acts 3:25

g. children of God, I John 3:10

2. negative

a. sons of the evil one, Matt. 13:38; John 8:44; I John 3:10

b. a son of hell, Matt. 23:15

c. sons of this age, Luke 16:8; 20:34

d. sons of the devil, Acts 13:10; 23:6

e. sons of disobedience, Eph. 2:2; 5:6

B. Characterization of an individual

1. positive

a. son of encouragement (i.e., Barnabas), Acts 4:36

b. son of Pharisees (i.e., Paul), Acts 23:6

2. negative

a. sons of thunder (i.e., James and John), Mark 3:17

b. son of perdition (i.e., Judas Iscariot), John 17:12

c. son of destruction (the Antichrist), II Thess. 2:3

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SPECIAL TOPIC: THE SON OF GOD

This is one of the major NT titles for Jesus. It surely has divine connotations. It included Jesus as “the Son” or “My Son” and God addressed as “Father.” It occurs in the NT over 124 times. Even Jesus’ self-designation as “Son of Man” has a divine connotation from Dan. 7:13-14.

In the OT the designation “son” could refer to four specific groups.

A. angels (usually in the plural, cf. Gen. 6:2; Job 1:6; 2:1)

B. the King of Israel (cf. II Sam. 7:14; Ps. 2:7; 89:26-27)

C. the nation of Israel as a whole (cf. Exod. 4:22-23; Deut. 14:1; Hos. 11:1; Mal. 2:10)

D. Israeli judges (cf. Ps. 82:6)

It is the second usage that is linked to Jesus. In this way “son of David” and “son of God” both relate to II Samuel 7; Psalm 2 and 89. In the OT “son of God” is never used specifically of the Messiah, except as the eschatological king as one of the “anointed offices” of Israel. However, in the Dead Sea Scrolls the title with Messianic implications is common (see specific references in Dictionary of Jesus and the Gospels, p. 770). Also “Son of God” is a Messianic title in two interbiblical Jewish apocalyptic works (cf. II Esdras 7:28; 13:32,37,52; 14:9 and I Enoch 105:2).

Its NT background as it refers to Jesus is best summarized by several categories.

1. His pre-existence (cf. John 1:1-18)

2. His unique (virgin) birth (cf. Matt. 1:23; Luke 1:31-35)

3. His baptism (cf. Matt. 3:17; Mark 1:11; Luke 3:22. God’s voice from heaven unites the royal king of Psalm 2 with the suffering servant of Isaiah 53).

4. His satanic temptation (cf. Matt. 4:1-11; Mark 1:12,13; Luke 4:1-13. He is tempted to doubt His sonship or at least to accomplish its purpose by different means than the cross).

5. His affirmation by unacceptable confessors

a. demons (cf. Mark 1:23-25; Luke 4:31-37,41; Mark 3:11-12; 5:7)

b. unbelievers (cf. Matt. 27:43; Mark 14:61; John 19:7)

6. His affirmation by His disciples

a. Matt. 14:33; 16:16

b. John 1:34,49; 6:69; 11:27

7. His self affirmation

a. Matthew 11:25-27

b. John 10:36

8. His use of the familial metaphor of God as Father

a. His use of “abba” for God

1) Mark 14:36

2) Romans 8:15

3) Galatians 4:6

b. His recurrent use of Father (patēr) to describe His relationship to deity

In summary, the title “Son of God” had great theological meaning for those who knew the OT and its promises and categories, but the NT writers were nervous about its use with Gentiles because of their pagan background of “the gods” taking women with the resulting offspring being “the titans” or “giants.”

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SPECIAL TOPIC: “the sons of God” in Genesis 6

A. There is great controversy over the identification of the phrase “the sons of God.” There have been three major interpretations

1. the phrase refers to the godly line of Seth (cf. Genesis 5)

2. the phrase refers to a group of angelic beings

3. the phrase refers to the kings or tyrants of Cain’s line (cf. Genesis 4)

B. Evidence for the phrase referring to Seth’s line

1. the immediate literary context of Genesis 4 and 5 shows the development of the rebellious line of Cain and the godly line of Seth. Therefore, contextual evidence seems to favor the godly line of Seth.

2. the rabbis have been divided over their understanding of this passage. Some assert that it refers to Seth (but most to angels).

3. the phrase, “the sons of God,” though most often used for angelic beings, rarely refers to human beings

a. Deut. 32:5

b. Psalm 73:15; 82:1-4

c. Hosea 1:10

C. Evidence for the phrase referring to angelic beings

1. this has been the most common traditional understanding of the passage. The larger context of Genesis could support this view as another example of supernatural evil trying to thwart God’s will for mankind (the rabbis say out of jealousy)

2. the phrase (“sons of God”) is used overwhelmingly in the OT for angels

a. Job 1:6

b. Job 2:1

c. Job 38:7

d. Daniel 3:25

e. Psalm 29:1

f. Psalm 89:6,7

3. the intertestamental book of I Enoch, which was very popular among believers in the NT period, along with the Genesis Apocryphon from the Dead Sea Scrolls and Jubilees 5:1, interprets these as rebellious angels (I Enoch 12:4; 19:1; 21:1-10).

4. the immediate context of Genesis 6 seems to imply that “the mighty men who were of old, men of renown” came from this improper mixing of the orders of creation

5. I Enoch even asserts that Noah’s Flood came to destroy this angelic/human union which was hostile towards YHWH and His plan for creation (cf. I Enoch 7:1ff; 15:1ff; 86:1ff)

D. Evidence for the phrase referring to kings or tyrants of Cain’s line

1. there are several ancient translations that support this view

a. Targum or Onkelos (second century a.d.) translates “sons of God” as “sons of nobles”

b. Symmachus (second century a.d.) Greek translation of the OT, translated “sons of God” as “the sons of the kings”

c. the term elohim is sometimes used of Israelite leaders (cf. Exod. 21:6; 22:8; Ps. 82:1,6)

d. Nephilim is linked to Gibborim in Gen 6:4. Gibborim is plural of Gibbor meaning “a mighty man of valor; strength; wealth or power”

2. this interpretation and its evidence is taken from Hard Sayings of the Bible, pp. 106-108.

E. Historical evidence of the advocates of both usages

1. the phrase refers to Sethites

a. Cyril of Alexander e. Calvin

b. Theodoret f. Kyle

c. Augustine g. Gleason Archer

d. Jerome h. Watts

2. the phrase refers to angelic beings

a. writers of the Septuagint f. Tertullian k. Olford

b. Philo g. Origen l. Westermann

c. Josephus (Antiquities 1.3.1) h. Luther m. Wenham

d. Justin Martyr i. Delitzsch n. NET bible

e. Clement of Alexandria j. Hengstenberg

F. How are the “Nephilim” of Gen. 6:4 related to the “sons of God” and “the daughters of men” of Gen. 6:1-2?

1. They are the giants that resulted from the union between angels and human women (cf. Num. 13:33).

2. They do not relate at all. They are simply mentioned as being on the earth in the days of the events of Gen. 6:1-2 and also afterwards.

3. R. K. Harrison in Introduction to the Old Testament, p. 557, has the following cryptic quote, “to miss entirely the invaluable anthropological insights into the interrelation of Homo sapiens and pre-Adamic species which the passage contains, and which are amenable to those scholars who are equipped to pursue them.”

This implies to me that he sees these two groups as representing differing groups of humanoids. This would imply a later special creation of Adam and Eve, but also an evolutionary development of Homo erectus.

G. It is only fair to disclose my own understanding of this controversial text. First, let me remind all of us that the text in Genesis is brief and ambiguous. Moses’ first hearers must have had additional historical insight or Moses used oral or written tradition from the Patriarchal period that he himself did not fully understand. This issue is not a crucial theological subject. We are often curious about things the Scriptures only hint at. It would be very unfortunate to build an elaborate theology out of this and similar fragments of biblical information. If we needed this information God would have provided it in a more clear and complete form. I personally believe it was angels and humans because:

1. the phrase “sons of God” is used consistently, if not exclusively, for angels in the OT

2. the Septuagint (Alexandrian) translates (late first century b.c.) “sons of God” as “angels of God”

3. the pseudepigraphal apocalyptic book of I Enoch (possibly written about 200 b.c.) is very specific that it refers to angels (cf. chapters 6-7)

4. II Peter 2 and Jude speak of angels who sinned and did not keep their proper abode

I know that to some this seems to contradict Matt. 22:30, but these specific angels are neither in heaven nor earth, but in a special prison (Tartarus).

5. I think that one reason many of the events of Genesis 1-11 are found in other cultures (i.e., similar creation accounts, similar flood accounts, similar accounts of angels taking women) is because all humans were together and had some knowledge of YHWH during this period, but after the tower of Babel’s dispersion this knowledge became corrupted and adapted to a polytheistic model.

A good example of this is Greek mythology where the half human/half superhuman giants called Titans are imprisoned in Tartarus, this very name used only once in the Bible (II Peter 2) for the holding place of the angels that kept not their proper abode. In rabbinical theology Hades was divided into a section for the righteous (paradise) and a section for the wicked (Tartarus).

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SPECIAL TOPIC: SON OF MAN (taken from notes in my commentary on Daniel 7:13)

The Aramaic phrase (“ben enosh,” construct BDB 1085 and 1081) “son of man” is different from the similar Hebrew phrase (“ben adam”) found in Psalms and Ezekiel. Both phrases are used in parallel in Job 25:6; Ps. 8:4; 90:3; 144:3; Isa. 13:12. This obviously refers to the Messiah and it links his humanity (cf. 8:17; Job 25:6; Ps. 8:4; Ezek. 2:1), which is the meaning of the Aramaic and Hebrew phrases, “son of man” with his deity because the clouds are the transportation of deity (cf. Matt. 24:30; 26:64; Mark 13:26; 14:62; Rev. 1:7; 14:14).

Jesus uses the phrase to refer to Himself in the NT. It was not used of the Messiah in rabbinical Judaism. It had no exclusivistic, nationalistic, militaristic connotations. It uniquely describes the Messiah as fully human and fully God (cf. I John 4:1-3). Daniel’s usage is the first which focuses on its divine aspect!

Jesus used the phrase for Himself in three senses.

1. His suffering and death (e.g. Mark 8:31; 10:45; 14:21; Luke 9:22,44)

2. His coming as Judge (e.g. Matt. 16:27; 25:31; John 5:27)

3. His coming in glory to set up His kingdom (e.g. Matt. 16:28; 19:28; Mark 13:26-27; 14:62)

From The Jewish Study Bible, p. 1657 (also see George E. Ladd, A Theology of the New Testament, pp. 136-139), the later Jewish tradition about this text are listed.

1. This context is Messianic (cf. I Enoch 46:1; 48:10; 4 Ezra [2 Esdras] chapter 13; b. Sanh. 98a)

2. All predictions in this context are already fulfilled (cf. b. Sanh. 97b)

3. This context does not refer to the end-time (cf. Gen. Rab. 98:2)

4. This context represents Israel (cf. Ibn Ezra and Rashi)

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SPECIAL TOPIC: SOPHISTS

The Greek word sophia means wisdom. The related term sophistēs came to denote someone “skilled” or “educated in rhetoric.” It usually denoted a public speaker, often itinerant, who come to a town and tried to start a school to train the children of the elite class. This public speaking is what caused the parents to seek them out for private lessons or schooling of their children.

There was a tremendous competition between these “wise men” related to their reputations and ability to attract students. There was even a set of guidelines for their initial speaking opportunities. One of these set procedures was a time for the philosopher to list his qualifications and strength.

Paul’s problems at Corinth seem to be related to

A. factions in the Church, each claiming to follow a particular teacher (I Corinthians 1-4)

B. Hellenistic-trained Jewish false teachers from Jerusalem (II Corinthians 10-13)

Paul’s disclaimer of “wisdom” in I Corinthians 1-4 set the stage for his being attacked by those who gloried in their philosophical, rhetorical training and judged all others in light of these criteria. It is surprising that Jewish teachers would have gloried in philosophical categories, but a precedent is set in Judaism by Philo of Alexandria and possibly even the training and background of Apollos of Alexandria.

Paul was not a polished public speaker. He was attacked for this. He retaliates by writing polished, balanced, well- constructed, rhetorical form in II Corinthians 10-13. He uses their terms, their forms and exposes their improper attitudes and arrogance.

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SPECIAL TOPIC: SPIRIT (PNEUMA) IN THE NT

The Greek term for “spirit” is used in several ways in the NT. Here are some representative classifications and examples.

A. of the Triune God

1. of the Father (cf. John 4:24)

2. of the Son (cf. Rom. 8:9-10; II Cor. 3:17; Gal. 4:6; I Pet. 1:11)

3. of the Holy Spirit (cf. Mark 1:11; Matt. 3:16; 10:20; John 3:5,6,8; 7:39; 14:17; Acts 2:4; 5:9; 8:29,35; Rom. 1:4; 8:11,16; I Cor. 2:4,10,11,13,14; 12:7)

B. of the human life force

1. of Jesus (cf. Mark 8:12; John 11:33,38; 13:21)

2. of mankind (cf. Matt. 22:43; Acts 7:59; 17:16; 20:22; Rom. 1:9; 8:16; I Cor. 2:11; 5:3-5; 7:34; 15:45; 16:18; II Cor. 2:13; 7:13; Phil. 4:23; Col. 2:5)

C. of the spiritual realm

1. spiritual beings

a. good (i.e., angels, cf. Acts 23:8-9; Heb. 1:14)

b. evil (i.e., demonic, cf. Matt. 8:16; 10:1; 12:43,45; Acts 5:16; 8:7; 16:16; 19:12-21; Eph. 6:12)

c. ghosts (cf. Luke 24:37)

2. spiritual discernment (cf. Matt. 5:3; 26:41; John 3:6; 4:23; Acts 18:25; 19:21; Rom. 2:29; 7:6; 8:4,10; 12:11; I Cor. 14:37)

3. spiritual things (cf. John 6:63; Rom. 2:29; 8:2,5,9,15; 15:27; I Cor. 9:11; 14:12)

4. spiritual gifts (cf. I Cor. 12:1; 14:1)

5. inspiration of the Spirit (cf. Matt. 22:43; Luke 2:27; Eph. 1:17)

6. spiritual body (cf. I Cor. 15:44-45)

D. Characterizes

1. the attitude of the world (cf. Rom. 8:15; 11:8; I Cor. 2:12)

2. thinking process of humans (cf. Acts 6:10; Rom. 8:6; I Cor. 4:2)

E. of the physical realm

1. wind (cf. Matt. 7:25,27; John 3:8; Acts 2:2)

2. breath (cf. Acts 17:25; II Thess. 2:8)

It is obvious that this term must be interpreted in light of its immediate context. There are various shades of meaning which can refer to (1) the physical world; (2) the unseen world; (3) as well as persons of this physical world or of the spiritual realm.

The Holy Spirit is that part of the Triune God who is supremely active in this stage of history. The new age of the Spirit has come. All that is good, holy, right, and true relates to Him. His presence, gifts, and ministry are crucial in the furtherance of the gospel and the success of the Kingdom of God (cf. John 14 and 16). He does not draw attention to Himself, but to Christ (cf. John 16:13-14). He convicts, convinces, woos, baptizes, and matures all believers (cf. John 16:8-11).

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SPECIAL TOPIC: STAND (HISTĒMI)

This common term is used in several theological senses in the New Testament

1. to establish

a. the OT Law, Rom. 3:31

b. one’s own righteousness, Rom. 10:3

c. the new covenant, Heb. 10:9

d. a charge, II Cor. 13:1

e. God’s truth, II Tim. 2:19

2. to resist spiritually

a. the devil, Eph. 6:11

b. in the day of judgment, Rev. 6:17

3. to resist by standing one’s ground

a. military metaphor, Eph. 6:14

b. civil metaphor, Rom. 14:4

4. a position in truth, John 8:44

5. a position in grace

a. Rom. 5:2

b. I Cor. 15:1

c. I Pet. 5:12

6. a position in faith

a. Rom. 11:20

b. I Cor. 7:37

c. I Cor. 15:1

d. II Cor. 1:24

7. a position of arrogance, I Cor. 10:12

This term expresses both the covenantal grace and mercy of a sovereign God and the fact that believers need to respond to it and cling to it by faith! Both are biblical truths. They must be held together!

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SPECIAL TOPIC: SUBMISSION (HUPOTASSŌ)

The Septuagint uses this term to translate ten different Hebrew words. Its basic OT meaning was “to order” or “the right of command.” This is picked up in the Septuagint (LXX).

1. God commands (cf. Lev. 10:1; Jonah 2:1; 4:6-8)

2. Moses commands (cf. Exod. 36:6; Deut. 27:1)

3. kings command (cf. II Chr. 31:13)

In the NT this sense continues as in Acts 10:48, where an Apostle commands. However, new connotations are developed in the NT.

1. a voluntary aspect develops (often middle voice)

2. this self-limiting action can be seen in Jesus submitting to the Father (cf. Luke 2:51)

3. believers submit to aspects of culture so that the gospel will not be adversely affected

a. other believers (cf. Eph. 5:21)

b. believing wives (cf. Col. 3:18; Eph. 5:22-24; Titus 2:5; I Pet. 3:1)

c. believers to pagan governments (cf. Rom. 13:1-7; I Pet. 2:13)

Believers act out of motives of love, for God, for Christ, for the Kingdom, for the good of others.

Like agapaō (love) the church filled this term with new meaning based on the needs of the Kingdom and the needs of others. This term takes on a new nobility of selflessness, not based on a command, but on a new relationship to a self-giving God and His Messiah. Believers obey and submit for the good of the whole and the blessing of the family of God.

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SPECIAL TOPIC: SYMBOLIC NUMBERS IN SCRIPTURE

A. Certain numbers functioned both as numerals and symbols.

1. One – God (e.g., Deut. 6:4; Eph. 4:4-6)

2. Four – the whole earth (i.e., four corners, four winds)

3. Six – human imperfection (one less than 7, e.g., Rev. 13:18)

4. Seven – divine perfection (the seven days of creation). Notice the symbolic usages in Revelation:

a. seven candlesticks, 1:12,20; 2:1

b. seven stars, 1:16,20; 2:1

c. seven churches, 1:20

d. seven spirits of God, 3:1; 4:5; 5:6

e. seven lamps, 4:5

f. seven seals, 5:1,5

g. seven horns and seven eyes, 5:6

h. seven angels, 8:2,6; 15:1,6,7,8; 16:1; 17:1

i seven trumpets, 8:2,6

j. seven thunders, 10:3,4

k. seven thousand, 11:13

l. seven heads, 13:1; 17:3,7,9

m. seven plagues, 15:1,6,8; 21:9

n. seven bowls, 15:7

o. seven kings, 17:10

p. seven vials, 21:9

5. Ten – completeness

a. use in Gospels

(1) Matt. 20:24; 25:1,28

(2) Mark 10:41

(3) Luke 14:31; 15:8; 17:12,17; 19:13,16,17,24,25

b. use in Revelation

(1) 2:10, ten days of tribulation

(2) 12:3; 17:3,7,12,16, ten horns

(3) 13:1, ten crowns

c. multiples of 10 in Revelation

(1) 144,000 = 12x12x1000, cf. 7:4; 14:1,3

(2) 1,000 = 10x10x10, cf. 20:2,3,6

6. Twelve – human organization

a. twelve sons of Jacob (i.e., twelve tribes of Israel, Gen. 35:22; 49:28)

b. twelve pillars, Exod. 24:4

c. twelve stones on breast plate of High Priest, Exod. 28:21; 39:14

d. twelve loaves, for table in Holy Place (symbolic of God’s provision for the twelve tribes), Lev. 24:5; Exod. 25:30

e. twelve spies, Deut. 1:23; Josh. 3:22; 4:2,3,4,8,9,20

f. twelve apostles, Matt. 10:1

g. use in Revelation

(1) twelve thousand sealed, 7:5-8

(2) twelve stars, 12:1

(3) twelve gates, twelve angels, twelve tribes, 21:12

(4) twelve foundation stones, names of the twelve apostles, 21:14

(5) New Jerusalem was twelve thousand stadia squared, 21:16

(6) twelve gates made of twelve pearls, 21:12

(7) tree of life with twelve kinds of fruit, 22:2

7. Forty – number for time

a. sometimes literal (exodus and wilderness wanderings, e.g., Exod. 16:35); Deut. 2:7; 8:2

b. can be literal or symbolic

(1) flood, Gen. 7:4,17; 8:6

(2) Moses on Mt. Sinai, Exod. 24:18; 34:28; Deut. 9:9,11,18,25

(3) divisions of Moses life:

(a) forty years in Egypt

(b) forty years in the desert

(4) Jesus fasted forty days, Matt. 4:2; Mark 1:13; Luke 4:2

c. Note (by means of a Concordance) the number of times this number appears in time designation in the Bible!

8. Seventy – round number for people

a. Israel, Exod. 1:5

b. seventy elders, Exod. 24:1,9

c. eschatological, Dan. 9:2,24

d. mission team, Luke 10:1,17

e. forgiveness (70x7), Matt. 18:22

B. Good references

1. John J. Davis, Biblical Numerology

2. D. Brent Sandy, Plowshares and Pruning Hooks

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SPECIAL TOPIC: THE TEN COMMANDMENTS (cf. Exod. 20:1-17; Deut. 5:6-21)

I. Terms

A. Literally “The Ten Words” (cf. Exod. 34:28; Deut. 4:13; 10:4).

B. Clement of Alexandria called it “The Decalogue” (Deka Logous) and this was followed by the early church fathers.

C. In the Bible it is also called:

1. “Covenant” (i.e., Hebrew berith, BDB 136, Exod. 34:28; Deut. 4:13; 9:9)

a. from Akkadian, barah—to eat (i.e., a common meal)

b. from Akkadian, biritu—to bind or fetter (i.e., a bond between people)

c. from Akkadian, birit—between (i.e., arrangement between two parties)

d. baru—a taste (i.e., an obligation)

2. “Testimony”—Exod. 16:34; 25:16 (i.e., the two tablets)

II. Purpose

A. They reveal the character of God

1. unique and authoritative (i.e., monotheistic)

2. ethical, both towards society and the individual

B. They are for

1. all people because they reveal God’s will for mankind and all humans were created in God’s image

2. covenant believers only because it is impossible to understand and obey without God’s help

3. C. S. Lewis—inner moral sense even among primitive tribes (Rom. 1:19-20; 2:14-15) are reflected here.

C. As all ancient law codes they were

1. to regulate and control interpersonal relationships

2. maintain stability of the society

D. They bound the heterogeneous group of slave and Egyptian outcasts into a community of faith and law. B. S. Childs, Old Testament Library, Exodus—“the eight negative aspects show the outer limits of the covenant boundary. There are no misdemeanors but to break the very fibre of which the divine-human relation consists. The two positive aspects show definition to the life within the covenant. The Decalogue looks both outward and inward; it guards against the way of death and points to the way of life” (p. 398).

III. Parallels

A. Biblical

1. The Ten Words are recorded twice, in Exodus 20 and Deuteronomy 5. The slight difference in the 4^th, 5^th, and 10^th commandments shows the adaptability of these general principles to different situations.

2. However, their uniformity points toward the precision with which they were transmitted.

3. They were probably read and reaffirmed periodically, as Joshua 24 shows.

B. Cultural

1. Other law codes from the ancient near East

a. Ur-Nammu (Sumerian, 2050 b.c.) from the city of Ur

b. Lipit-Ishtar (Sumerian, 1900 b.c.) from the city of Isin

c. Eshnunna (Akkadian, 1875 b.c.) from the city of Eshunna

d. Code of Hammurabi (Babylonian, 1690 b.c.) from Babylon but Stela were found in Susa

2. The form of the laws in Exodus 20:18-23:37 have much in common with other ancient Near Eastern law codes. However, the Ten Words are in a unique form which implies their authority (2^nd person commands—apodictic).

3. The most obvious cultural connection is with the Hittite Suzerainty Treaties of 1450-1200 b.c. Some good examples of this similarity can be seen in

a. The Ten Words

b. The book of Deuteronomy

c. Joshua 24

The elements of these treaties are

a. Identification of the King

b. Narration of his great acts

c. Covenant obligations

d. Instruction for depositing the treaty in the sanctuary for public reading

e. Deities of parties invoked as witnesses

f. Blessing for fidelity and curses for violations

4. Some good sources on this subject

a. George Mendenhall, Law and Covenant in Israel and the Ancient Near East

b. Dewey Beegle, Moses, The Servant of Yahweh

c. W. Bezalin, Origin and History

d. D. J. McCarthy, Treaty and Covenant

IV. Internal Structure

A. Alt, in his book, The Origins of Israelite Law, was the first to make the distinction between apodictic and casuistic.

1. Casuistic being that common form of ANE Law that contained a condition—“if” = “then”

2. Apodictic being that rare form that expresses a direct command “Thou shall. . .” or “Thou shall not. . .”

3. Roland de Vaux in Ancient Israel: Social Institutions, vol. 1, p. 146, says that the casuistic is primarily used in the secular area and the apodictic in the sacred.

B. The Ten Words are primarily negative in their expression—8 of 10. The form is second person singular. They are either meant to address the entire Covenant community, each individual member, or both!

C. The two tables of stone (Exod. 24:12; 31:18) are often interpreted as relating to the vertical and horizontal aspects of the Ten Words. Man’s relationship to YHWH is spelled out in four

commands and man’s relationship to other men in the other 6 commandments. However, in light of Hittite Suzerain treaties, they may be two copies of the entire list of commands.

D. The historical numbering of the Ten Words

1. It is obvious that we have ten regulations. However, the exact distinction is not given.

2. Modern Jews list 20:2 as the first commandment. In order to keep the number at ten they make verses 3-6 the second commandment.

3. The Roman Catholic and Lutheran churches, following Augustine, make Exod. 20:3-6 the first commandment and in order to keep the number at ten, divide verse 17 into two separate commands.

4. Reform churches, following Origen and the early Eastern and Western churches, assert that Exod. 20:3 is the first commandment. This was the ancient Jewish view represented by Philo and Josephus.

V. How are Christians to Relate to the Ten Words?

A. Jesus’ high views of Scripture are recorded in the Sermon on the Mount in Matthew 5-7 and especially 5:17-48, which shows us the seriousness of the question. His sermon almost seems to be based on the Ten Words and their proper application.

B. Theories of relationship

1. For believers

a. Roy Honeycutt, These Ten Words

(1) “We never outgrow the Ten Commandments because we never outgrow God” (p. 7).

(2) “Because the Commandments are witnesses to God, however, there is a sense in which their relevance and the relevance of God are so intertwined as to be almost inseparable. Consequently, if God is so relevant for your life, the Commandments will also be deeply relevant for they are written of God’s character and demands” (p. 8).

b. Personally, we must see these directives as issuing from a faith relation already established. To divorce them from faith and commitment to God is to destroy them. Therefore, for me, they are universal only in the sense that God wants all men to know Him. They are also related to the inner witness of God to His entire human creation. Paul expresses this in Romans 1:19-20; 2:14-15. In this sense the Commandments reflect a guiding light that has an indwelling relevance to all mankind.

2. For all men, in all societies, for all times

a. Elton Trueblood, Foundations for Reconstruction

“The thesis of this small book is that the recovery of the moral law, as represented by the Hebrew Decalogue, is one of the ways in which an antidote to potential decline can be found” (p. 6).

b.George Rawlinson, Pulpit Commentary, “Exodus”

“They constitute for all time a condensed summary of human duty which bears divinity upon its face, which is suited for every form of human society, and which, so long as the world endures, cannot become antiquated. The retention of the Decalogue as the best summary of the moral law by Christian communities is

justified on these grounds, and itself furnishes emphatic testimony to the excellency of the compendium” (p. 130).

3. As a means of salvation they are not, nor ever have been, God’s means for the spiritual redemption of fallen man. Paul clearly states this in Gal. 2:15-4:31 and Rom. 3:21-6:23. They do serve as guidelines for man in society. They point to God and then to our fellow man. To miss the first element is to miss all! Moral rules, without changed, indwelt hearts, are a picture of man’s hopeless fallenness! The Ten Words are valid, but only as a preparation to meet God in the midst of our inability. Divorced from redemption they are guidelines without a guide!

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SPECIAL TOPIC: TEXTUAL CRITICISM

A brief explanation of the problems and theories of “lower criticism” or “textual criticism.”

A. How the variants occurred

1. inadvertent or accidental (vast majority of occurrences)

a. slip of the eye

(1) in hand copying which reads the second instance of two similar words and thereby omits all of the words in between (homoioteleuton)

(2) in omitting a double letter word or phrase (haplography)

(3) mental error in repeating a phrase or line of a Greek text (dittography)

b. slip of the ear in copying by oral dictation where a misspelling occurs (itacism). Often the misspelling implies or spells a similar-sounding Greek word.

c. the earliest Greek texts had no chapter or verse divisions, little or no punctuation and no division between words. It is possible to divide the letters in different places forming different words.

2. intentional

a. changes were made to improve the grammatical form of the text copied

b. changes were made to bring the text into conformity with other biblical texts (harmonization of parallels)

c. changes were made by combining two or more variant readings into one long combined text (conflation)

d. changes were made to correct a perceived problem in the text (cf. Bart Ehrman, The Orthodox Corruption of Scripture, pp. 146-50, concerning Heb. 2:9)

e. some additional information as to the historical setting or proper interpretation of the text was placed in the margin by one scribe but placed into the text by a second scribe (cf. John 5:4)

B. The basic tenets of textual criticism (transcriptional probabilities)

1. the most awkward or grammatically unusual text is probably the original because scribes tended to make the texts smoother

2. the shortest text is probably the original because scribes tended to add additional information or phrases from parallel passages

3. the older text is given more weight because of its historical proximity to the original, everything else being equal

4. manuscripts that are geographically diverse usually have the original reading

5. attempts to explain how variants could have occurred (this is considered the most important tenet by most scholars)

6. analysis of a given biblical author’s literary style, vocabulary, and theology is used to decide probable original wording

The UBS⁴ Greek text used in most academic settings is an eclectic text pieced together from many ancient Greek manuscripts. Most scholars assume that more than 97% of the original wording of the Autographs has been achieved.

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SPECIAL TOPIC: THANKSGIVING

I. Introduction

A. This is the appropriate attitude of believers toward God:

1. This is the source of our praise to God through Christ

a. II Corinthians 2:14

b. II Corinthians 9:15

c. Colossians 3:17

2. This is the proper motive for ministry, I Cor. 1:4

3. This is the continual theme of heaven:

a. Revelation 4:9

b. Revelation 7:12

c. Revelation 11:17

4. This is the continual theme of believers

a. Colossians 2:7

b. Colossians 3:17

c. Colossians 4:2

II. Biblical Material

A. Old Testament

1. Two basic words

a. yadah (BDB 392), which means praise

b. todah (BDB 392), which means thanksgiving. It is usually used of sacrifices offered (cf. II Chr. 29:31; 33:16)

2. David appointed special Levites to praise and thank God. This was continued by Solomon, Hezekiah, and Nehemiah.

a. I Chronicles 16:4,7,41

b. I Chronicles 23:30

c. I Chronicles 25:3

d. II Chronicles 5:13

e. II Chronicles 7:6

f. II Chronicles 31:2

g. Nehemiah 11:12

h. Nehemiah 12:24,27,31,38,46

3. The Psalter is the collection of the praises and thanksgivings of Israel.

a. Thanksgiving to YHWH for His faithfulness to the Covenant

(1) Psalm 107:8

(2) Psalm 103:1ff

(3) Psalm 138:2

b. Thanksgiving was part of the processional to the Temple

(1) Psalm 95:2

(2) Psalm 100:4

c. Thanksgiving accompanied sacrifices

(1) Psalm 26:7

(2) Psalm 122:4

d. Thanksgiving given for the actions of YHWH

(1) Deliverance from enemies

(a) Psalm 7:17

(b) Psalm 18:49

(d) Psalm 35:18

(e) Psalm 44:8

(f) Psalm 54:6

(g) Psalm 79:13

(h) Psalm 118:1,21,29

(i) Psalm 138:1

(2) Deliverance from prison (metaphor), Psalm 142:7

(3) Deliverance from death

(a) Psalm 30:4,12

(b) Psalm 86:12-13

(4) He puts down the wicked and exalts the righteous

(a) Psalm 52:9

(b) Psalm 75:1

(d) Psalm 140:13

(5) He forgives

(a) Psalm 30:4

(b) Isaiah 12:1

(6) He provides for His people

(a) Psalm 106:1ff

(b) Psalm 111:1

(d) Psalm 145:10

(e) Jeremiah 33:11

B. New Testament

1. The major word used for thanks and thanksgiving (some references)

a. eucharisteō (cf. I Cor. 1:4,14; 10:30; 11:24; 14:17,18; Col. 1:3,12; 3:17)

b. eucharistos (cf. Col. 3:15)

c. eucharistia (cf. I Cor. 14:16; II Cor. 4:15; 9:11,12; Col. 2:7; 4:2)

d. charis (cf. I Cor. 15:57; II Cor. 2:14; 8:16; 9:15; I Pet. 2:19)

2. The example of Jesus

a. He was thankful for food:

(1) Luke 22:17,19 ( I Cor. 11:24)

(2) John 6:11,23

b. He was thankful for answered prayer, John 11:41

3. Other examples of thankfulness

a. For God’s gift of Christ, II Cor. 9:15

b. For food

(1) Acts 27:35

(2) Romans 14:6

(3) I Corinthians 10:30; 11:24

(4) I Timothy 4:3-4

c. For healing, Luke 17:16

d. For peace, Acts 24:2-3

e. For deliverance from danger

(1) Acts 27:35

(2) Acts 28:15

f. For all circumstances, Philippians 4:6

g. For all humans, especially leaders, I Timothy 2:1

D. Other aspects of thankfulness

a. It is God’s will for all believers, I Thessalonians 5:18

b. It is an evidence of the Spirit-filled live, Ephesians 5:20

c. To neglect it is sin

(1) Luke 17:16

(2) Romans 1:21

d. It is an antidote for sin, Ephesians 5:4

E. Paul’s thankfulness

a. His blessings on the church

(1) for proclaiming the gospel

(a) Romans 1:8

(b) Colossians 1:3-4

(d) I Thessalonians 1:2

(2) for grace bestowed

(a) I Corinthians 1:4

(b) II Corinthians 1:11; 4:15

(3) for accepting the gospel, I Thessalonians 2:13

(4) for fellowship in the spread of the gospel, Philippians 1:3-5

(5) for growth in grace, II Thessalonians 1:3

(6) for knowledge of election, II Thessalonians 2:13

(7) for spiritual blessings, Colossians 1:12; 3:15

(8) for liberality in giving, II Corinthians 9:11-12

(9) for joy over new believers, I Thessalonians 3:9

b. His personal thanksgiving

(1) for being a believer, Colossians 1:12

(2) for deliverance from bondage to sin, Romans 7:25; II Cor. 2:14

(3) for the sacrificial labor of other believers, Romans 16:4; II Cor. 8:16

(4) for some acts not occurring, I Corinthians 1:14

(5) for personal spiritual gift, I Corinthians 14:18

(6) for the spiritual growth of friends, Philemon 4-5

(7) for the physical strength for ministry, I Timothy 1:12

III. Conclusion

A. Thanksgiving is our central response to God once we are saved. It issues not only in verbal assent, but lifestyle gratitude.

B. Thanksgiving in all things is the goal of a mature life in the care of God ( cf. I Thess. 5:13-18).

C. Thanksgiving is a recurrent theme of both Old and New Testaments. Is it a theme of yours?

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SPECIAL TOPIC: TIMOTHY

A. His name means “one who honors God.”

B. He was the child of a Jewish mother and a Greek father and lived in Lystra (cf. Acts 16:1). The Latin translation of Origen’s commentary on Rom. 16:21 says Timothy was a citizen of Derbe. This is possibly from Acts 20:4.

C. He was instructed in the Jewish faith (or Christian faith) by his mother and grandmother (cf. II Tim. 1:5; 3:14-15).

D. He apparently trusted Christ during Paul’s first missionary journey (cf. Acts 14:6-7).

E. He was asked to join Paul and Silas’ missionary team on the second journey (cf. Acts 16:1-5), apparently to take John Mark’s duties. He was confirmed by prophecy (cf. I Tim. 1:18; 4:14).

F. He was circumcised by Paul in order to work with both Jews and Greeks (cf. Acts 16:3).

G. He was a dedicated companion of Paul and became his Apostolic delegate. He is mentioned by name more than any other of Paul’s helpers (17 times in 10 letters, cf. Rom. 16:21; I Cor. 4:17; 16:10; Phil.1:1; 2:19,22; Col. 1:5; I Tim. 1:2; II Tim. 1:2; Titus 1:4).

H. Paul affectionately calls him “my true child in the faith” (cf. I Tim. 1:2); “my beloved son” (cf. II Tim. 1:2); “my true child in a common faith” (cf. Titus 1:4). Also notice “my beloved and faithful child in the Lord” in I Cor. 4:17.

I. He was apparently in Rome when Paul was released from prison and accompanied him on his fourth missionary journey (cf. Col. 1:1; Philemon 1).

J. He is called an “apostle” in I Thess. 2:6 in the sense of an ongoing spiritual gift for the churches (cf. Eph. 4:11).

K. Two of the three Pastoral Letters are addressed to him.

L. He is last mentioned in Heb. 13:23 (but chronologically in II Tim. 1:2).

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SPECIAL TOPIC: TITHING

This is the only NT reference to tithing. I do not believe the NT teaches tithing because this entire setting is against “nit-picking” Jewish legalism and self-righteousness. I believe the NT guidelines for regular giving (if there are any) are found in II Corinthians 8 and 9, which go far beyond tithing! If a Jew with only the information of the OT was commanded to give ten to thirty percent (there are two, possibly three, required tithes in the OT), then Christians should give far beyond and not even take the time to discuss the tithe!

NT believers must be careful of turning Christianity into a new legal performance-oriented code (Christian Talmud). Their desire to be pleasing to God causes them to try to find guidelines for every area of life. However, theologically it is dangerous to pull old covenant rules which are not reaffirmed in the NT (cf. Acts 15) and make them dogmatic criteria, especially when they are claimed (by modern preachers) to be causes of calamity or promises of prosperity (cf. Malachi 3).

Here is a good quote from Frank Stagg, New Testament Theology, pp. 292-293.

“The New Testament does not once introduce tithing into the grace of giving. Tithes are mentioned only three times in the New Testament: (1) in censoring the Pharisees for neglect of justice, mercy, and faith while giving meticulous care to the tithing of even garden produce (Matt. 23:23; Luke 11:42); (2) in the exposure of the proud Pharisee who ‘prayed to himself,’ boasting that he fasted twice each week and tithed all his possessions (Luke 18:12); and (3) in arguing for the superiority of Melchizedek, and hence of Christ, to Levi (Heb. 7:6-9).

“It is clear that Jesus approved tithing as a part of the Temple system, just as in principle and practice he supported the general practices of the Temple and the synagogues. But there is no indication that he imposed any part of theTemple cultus on his followers. Tithes were chiefly produce, formerly eaten at the sanctuary by the one tithing and later eaten by the priests. Tithing as set forth in the Old Testament could be carried out only in a religious system built around a system of animal sacrifice.

“Many Christians find the tithe to be a fair and workable plan for giving. So long as it is not made to be a coercive or legalistic system, it may prove to be a happy plan. However, one may not validly claim that tithing is taught in the New Testament. It is recognized as proper for Jewish observance (Matt. 23:23; Luke 11:42), but it is not imposed upon Christians. In fact, it is now impossible for Jews or Christians to tithe in the Old Testament sense. Tithing today only faintly resembles the ancient ritual practice belonging to the sacrificial system of the Jews. “

Paul Stagg has summed it up.

“While much may be said for adopting the tithe voluntarily as a standard for one’s giving without rigidly imposing it upon others as a Christian requirement, it is clear in adopting such a practice that one is not carrying on the Old Testament practice. At most one is doing something only remotely analogous to the tithing practice of the Old Testament, which was a tax to support the Temple and the priestly system, a social and religious system which no longer exists. Tithes were obligatory in Judaism as a tax until the destruction of the Temple in a.d. 70, but they are not thus binding upon Christians.

This is not to discredit tithing, but it is to clarify its relationship to the New Testament. It is to deny that the New Testament supports the coerciveness, legalism, profit motive, and the bargaining which so often characterize the tithing appeals today. As a voluntary system, tithing offers much; but it must be redeemed by grace if it is to be Christian. To plead that ‘it works’ is only to adopt the pragmatic tests of the world. Much ‘works’ that is not Christian. Tithing, if it is to be congenial to New Testament theology, must be rooted in the grace and love of God.”

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SPECIAL TOPIC: OT TITLES OF THE SPECIAL COMING ONE

A. Prophet - Deut. 18:15,18

B. King

1. from the tribe of Judah, Gen. 49:10; Ps. 60:7; 108:8

2. from the family of David, II Samuel 7 (from Jesse, Isa. 11:1)

3. from other texts, I Sam. 2:10; Ps. 89:3-4; Isa. 9,11; Jer. 30:8-9; Ezek. 37:21-22; Zech. 9:9-10

C. King/Priest

1. Psalm 110 (king, vv. 1-3; priest, v. 4)

2. Zech. 4:14 (the two olive trees, the two anointed ones, Zerubbabel [line of David] and Joshua [line of Aaron])

D. Anointed One (Messiah)

1. God’s King, Ps. 2:2; 45:7

2. Spirit’s presence, Isa. 11:2; 61:1

3. Coming One, Dan. 9:26

E. King’s Son

1. Ps. 2:7,12

2. Israel’s king as a symbol of God’s reign (cf. I Samuel 8)

F. Son of Man (Dan. 7:13)

1. human, Ps. 8:4; Ezek. 2:1

2. divine, Dan. 7:13

G. Special Redemptive Titles

1. Suffering Servant, Isa. 52:13-53:12

2. Suffering Shepherd, Zech. 12-14

3. Cornerstone, Ps. 118: Isa. 8:14-15; 28:16

4. Special Child, Isa. 7:14; 9:6-7; Micah 5:2

5. Branch, Isa. 4:2; 11:5; 53:2; Jer. 23:5-6; 33:15; Zech. 3:8; 6:12

For a good discussion of the distinction in the Gospels between Son of Man as authority figure versus Suffering Servant, see George E. Ladd, A Theology of the New Testament, p. 149-158.

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SPECIAL TOPIC: TITUS

A. Titus was one of Paul’s most trusted co-workers. This is evidenced by the fact that Paul sent him to the trouble spots of Corinth and Crete.

B. He was a full Gentile (Timothy was only half-Greek), converted under Paul’s preaching. Paul refused to circumcise him (cf. Galatians 2).

C. He is mentioned often in Paul’s letters (cf. II Cor. 2:13; 7:6-15; 8:6-24; 12:18; Gal. 2:1-3; II Tim. 4:10) and it is very surprising that Luke does not mention him in Acts. Some commentaries theorize that (1) he may have been a relative of Luke (possibly a brother) and to include his name would have been seen as an act of cultural impropriety on Luke’s part or (2) Titus is Luke’s major source of information about Paul’s life and ministry and, therefore, like Luke, would not be named.

D. He accompanied Paul and Barnabas to the all important Jerusalem Council, recorded in Acts 15.

E. The book of Titus focuses on advice Paul gives Titus about his work on Crete. Titus is acting as Paul’s official surrogate.

F. The last information in the NT about Titus is that he was sent to work in Dalmatia (cf. II Tim. 4:10).

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SPECIAL TOPIC: TRIBULATION

There needs to be a theological distinction between Paul’s use of this term (thlipsis) and John’s.

A. Paul’s usage (which reflects Jesus’ usage)

1. problems, sufferings, evil involved in a fallen world

a. Matt. 13:21

b. Rom. 5:3

c. I Cor. 7:28

d. II Cor. 7:4

e. Eph. 3:13

2. problems, sufferings, evil caused by unbelievers

a. Rom. 5:3; 8:35; 12:12

b. II Cor. 1:4,8; 6:4; 7:4; 8:2,13

c. Eph. 3:13

d. Phil. 4:14

e. I Thess. 1:6

f. II Thess. 1:4

3. problems, sufferings, evil of the end-time

a. Matt. 24:21,29

b. Mark 13:19,24

c. II Thess. 1:6-9

B. John’s usage

1. John makes a specific distinction between thlipsis and orgē or thumos (wrath) in Revelation. Thlipsis is what unbelievers do to believers and orgē and thumos is what God does to unbelievers.

a. thlipsis - Rev. 1:9; 2:9-10,22; 7:14

b. orgē - Rev. 6:16-17; 11:18; 16:19; 19:15

c. thumos - Rev. 12:12; 14:8,10,19; 15:2,7; 16:1; 18:3

2. John also uses the term in his Gospel to reflect problems believers face in every age - John 16:33.

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SPECIAL TOPIC: THE TRINITY

Notice the activity of all three Persons of the Trinity in unified contexts. The term “trinity,” first coined by Tertullian, is not a biblical word, but the concept is pervasive.

A. the Gospels

1. Matt. 3:16-17; 28:19 (and parallels)

2. John 14:26

B. Acts – Acts 2:32-33, 38-39

C. Paul

1. Rom. 1:4-5; 5:1,5; 8:1-4,8-10

2. I Cor. 2:8-10; 12:4-6

3. II Cor. 1:21; 13:14

4. Gal. 4:4-6

5. Eph. 1:3-14,17; 2:18; 3:14-17; 4:4-6

6. I Thess. 1:2-5

7. II Thess. 2:13

8. Titus 3:4-6

D. Peter – I Pet. 1:2

E. Jude – vv. 20-21

A plurality in God is hinted at in the OT.

A. Use of plurals for God

1. Name Elohim is plural, but when used of God always has a singular verb

2. “Us” in Genesis 1:26-27; 3:22; 11:7

B. The Angel of the Lord was a visible representative of Deity

1. Genesis 16:7-13; 22:11-15; 31:11,13; 48:15-16

2. Exodus 3:2,4; 13:21; 14:19

3. Judges 2:1; 6:22-23; 13:3-22

4. Zechariah 3:1-2

C. God and His Spirit are separate, Gen. 1:1-2; Ps. 104:30; Isa. 63:9-11; Ezek. 37:13-14

D. God (YHWH) and Messiah (Adon) are separate, Ps. 45:6-7; 110:1; Zech. 2:8-11; 10:9-12

E. The Messiah and the Spirit are separate, Zech. 12:10

F. All three are mentioned in Isa. 48:16; 61:1

The Deity of Jesus and the personality of the Spirit caused problems for the strict, monotheistic, early believers.

1. Tertullian – subordinated the Son to the Father

2. Origen – subordinated the divine essence of the Son and the Spirit

3. Arius – denied Deity to the Son and Spirit

4. Monarchianism – believed in a successive manifestation of the one God as Father, Son, then Spirit

The trinity is a historically developed formulation informed by the biblical material

1. the full Deity of Jesus, equal to the Father, and was affirmed in a.d. 325 by the Council of Nicea

2. the full personality and Deity of the Spirit equal to the Father and Son was affirmed by the Council of Constantinople (a.d. 381)

3. the doctrine of the trinity is fully expressed in Augustine’s work De Trinitate

There is truly mystery here. But the NT seems to affirm one divine essence with three eternal personal manifestations.

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SPECIAL TOPIC: “TRUTH” (THE CONCEPT) IN JOHN’S WRITINGS

In a sense John combines the Hebrew background and Greek background of alētheia “truth” as he did logos (cf. 1:1-14). In Hebrew emeth (BDB 53) denotes that which is true, or trustworthy (often associated in the Septuagint with pisteuō). In Greek it was associated with Plato’s reality versus unreality, heavenly versus earthly. This fits the dualism of John. God has clearly revealed (the etymology of alētheia is to expose, unconceal, clearly manifest) Himself in His Son. This is expressed in several ways.

1. noun, alētheia, truth

a. Jesus is full of grace and truth (cf. 1:14,17 – OT covenant terms)

b. Jesus is the focus of John the Baptist’s witness (cf. 4:33; 18:37 – last OT prophet)

c. Jesus speaks the truth (cf. 8:4,44,45,46 – revelation is propositional and personal)

d. Jesus (the Logos, 1:1-3) is truth (cf. 17:17)

2. adjective, alēthēs, true, trustworthy

a. Jesus’ witness (cf. 5:31-32; 7:18; 8:13-14)

b. Jesus’ judgment (cf. 8:16)

3. adjective, alēthinus, real

a. Jesus is the true light (cf. 1:9)

b. Jesus is the true bread (cf. 6:32)

c. Jesus is the true vine (cf. 15:1)

d. Jesus is the true witness (cf. 19:35)

4. adverb, alēthōs, truly

a. Samaritan witness to Jesus as Savior of the world (cf. 4:42)

b. Jesus is true food and drink, as opposed to the manna of Moses’ day (cf. 6:55)

The term truth and its derivatives also express others’ testimony to Jesus, alēthēs

a. John the Baptist’s testimony is true (cf. 10:41)

b. testimony of one of the soldiers at the crucifixion is true (cf. 19:35)

c. John’s (the author of the Gospel) testimony is true (cf. 21:24)

d. Jesus seen as true prophet (cf. 6:14; 7:40)

For a good discussion of truth in the OT and NT see George E. Ladd’s A Theology of the New Testament, pp. 263-269.

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SPECIAL TOPIC: “TRUE” (THE TERM) IN JOHN’S WRITINGS

1. God the Father

a. God is true/trustworthy (cf. John 3:33; 7:18,28; 8:26; 17:3; Rom. 3:4; I Thess. 1:9; I John 5:20; Rev. 6:10)

b. God’s ways are true (cf. Rev. 15:3)

c. God’s judgments are true (cf. Rev. 16:7; 19:2)

d. God’s sayings are true (cf. Rev. 19:11)

2. God the Son

a. the Son is true/truth

1) true light (cf. John 1:9; I John 2:8)

2) true vine (cf. John 15:1)

3) full of grace and truth (cf. John 1:14,17)

4) He is truth (cf. John 14:6; 8:32)

5) He is true (cf. Rev. 3:7,14; 19:11)

b. the Son’s testimony/witness is true (cf. John 18:37)

3. It can have a comparative sense

a. the law of Moses versus Jesus’ grace and truth (cf. John 1:17)

b. the tabernacle in the wilderness versus the heavenly tabernacle (cf. Heb. 8:2; 9:1)

4. As so often in John this word had several connotations (Hebraic and Greek). John uses them all to describe the Father and the Son, as persons, as speakers, and as their message which is to be passed on to their followers (cf. John 4:13; 19:35; Heb. 10:22; Rev. 22:6).

5. For John these two adjectives describe the Father as the one and only trustworthy deity (cf. 5:44; I John 5:20) and Jesus as His true and complete revelation for the purpose of redemptive, not just cognitive, facts!

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SPECIAL TOPIC: “TRUTH” IN PAUL’S WRITINGS

Paul’s usage of this term and its related forms comes from its OT equivalent, emet, which means trustworthy or faithful (BDB 53). In interbiblical Jewish writings it was used of truth in contrast to falsehood. Maybe the closest parallel would be the Dead Sea Scrolls’ “Thanksgiving Hymns,” where it is used of revealed doctrines. The members of the Essene Community became “witnesses of truth.”

Paul uses the term as a way of referring to the gospel of Jesus Christ.

1. Romans 1:18,25; 2:8,20; 3:7; 15:8

2. I Corinthians 13:6

3. II Corinthians 4:2; 6:7; 11:10; 13:8

4. Galatians 2:5,14; 5:7

5. Ephesians 1:13; 6:14

6. Colossians 1:5,6

7. II Thessalonians 2:10,12,13

8. I Timothy 2:4; 3:15; 4:3; 6:5

9. II Timothy 2:15,18,25; 3:7,8; 4:4

10. Titus 1:1,14

Paul also uses the term as a way of expressing his speaking accurately

1. Acts 26:25

2. Romans 9:1

3. II Corinthians 7:14; 12:6

4. Ephesians 4:25

5. Philippians 1:18

6. I Timothy 2:7

He also uses it to describe his motives in I Cor. 5:8 and lifestyle (also for all Christians) in Eph. 4:24; 5:9; Phil. 4:8. He sometimes uses it for people.

1. God, Rom. 3:4 (cf. John 3:33; 17:17)

2. Jesus, Eph. 4:21 (similar to John 14:6)

3. Apostolic witnesses, Titus 1:13

4. Paul, II Cor. 6:8

Only Paul uses the verb form (i.e., alētheuō) in Gal. 4:16 and Eph. 4:15, where it refers to the gospel. For further study consult Colin Brown (ed), The New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology, vol. 3, pp. 784-902.

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SPECIAL TOPIC: TYPOLOGY

Philo and the early church’s use of allegory and Paul’s use of the same technique differed significantly. The former totally ignored the historical setting, developing teachings entirely foreign to the original author’s intent. Paul’s approach is better characterized as typology. Paul assumed the historical setting of Genesis and the unity of the Old and New Covenants, thus he was able to build on the similarities between them because they have one author—God. In this particular context, Paul compared the Abrahamic Covenant and the Mosaic Covenant and draws application to the New Covenant of Jer. 31:31-34 and the NT.

Four connections in 4:21-31 may be drawn.

1. the two mothers stand for two families; one formed by natural means, the other by supernatural promise

2. there was tension between these two mothers and their children as there was tension between the Judaizer’s message and Paul’s gospel

3. both groups claimed to be descendants of Abraham, but one was in bondage to the Mosaic Law and the other was free in Christ’s finished work

4. two mountains were connected to these different covenants, Mt. Sinai with Moses and Mt. Zion with Abraham. Mt. Zion or Mt. Moriah was where Abraham offered Isaac as a sacrifice (cf. Gen. 22), which later became Jerusalem. Abraham was looking for a heavenly city (Heb. 11:10; 12:22; 13:14, New Jerusalem, Isaiah 40-66) not an earthly Jerusalem.

Paul may have used this typology because

1. the false teachers had used this same approach to their advantage claiming to be the true seed of Abraham

2. the false teachers may have used an allegory from Moses’ writings to push their Jewish covenant theology so Paul uses the father of the Jewish faith, Abraham

3. Paul may have used it because of Gen. 21:9-10, which is quoted in verse 30 and says, “drive off” the natural son; in Paul’s analogy this would refer to the Judaizers

4. Paul may have used it because of the exclusivism of the Jewish false teachers, particularly in their contempt for the Gentiles; in Paul’s typology the Gentiles are accepted and the racially confident ones are rejected by God (cf. Matt. 8:11-12)

5. Paul may have used this typology because he has been emphasizing “sonship” and “heirship” in chapters 3 & 4. This was the heart of his argument: our adoption into the family of God by faith through Christ alone, not natural descent.

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SPECIAL TOPIC: THE NUMBER TWELVE

Twelve has always been a symbolic number of organization

A. outside the Bible

1. twelve signs of the Zodiac

2. twelve months of the year

B. in the OT (BDB 1040 plus 797)

1. the sons of Jacob (the Jewish tribes)

2. reflected in

a. twelve pillars of the altar in Exod. 24:4

b. twelve jewels on the high priest’s breastplate (which stand for the tribes) in Exod. 28:21

c. twelve loaves of bread in the holy place of the tabernacle in Lev. 24:5

d. twelve spies sent into Canaan in Num. 13 (one from each tribe)

e. twelve rods (tribal standards) at Korah’s rebellion in Num. 17:2

f. twelve stones of Joshua in Josh. 4:3,9,20

g. twelve administrative districts in Solomon’s administration in I Kgs. 4:7

h. twelve stones of Elijah’s altar to YHWH in I Kgs. 18:31

C. in the NT

1. twelve apostles chosen

2. twelve baskets of bread (one for each Apostle) in Matt. 14:20

3. twelve thrones on which NT disciples sit (referring to the 12 tribes of Israel) in Matt. 19:28

4. twelve legions of angels to rescue Jesus in Matt. 26:53

5. the symbolism of Revelation

a. 24 elders on 24 thrones in 4:4

b. 144,000 (12x12) in 7:4; 14:1,3

c. twelve stars on the woman’s crown in 12:1

d. twelve gates, twelve angels reflecting the twelve tribes in 21:12

e. twelve foundation stones of the new Jerusalem and on them the names of the twelve Apostles in 21:14

f. twelve thousand stadia in 21:16 (size of new city, New Jerusalem)

g. wall is 144 cubits in 21:7

h. twelve gates of pearl in 21:21

i. trees in new Jerusalem with twelve kinds of fruit (one for each month ) in 22:2

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SPECIAL TOPIC: THE TWO CITIES

A. Chapters 24-27 are a literary unit positioned at the conclusion of a series of judgment oracles against the surrounding nations found in Isaiah 13-23. Judgment is not the last word! The God of grace and mercy has an eternal, inclusive, redemptive plan!

B. This entire section is a play on two cities.

1. the cities formed by the fallen human children of Cain, who try to meet their needs completely in their own resources (i.e., Genesis 10-11).

2. the city of Zion, where God dwells (i.e., above the wings of the two Cherubim over the Ark of the covenant in the holiest inner shrine of the temple in Jerusalem) and where His people (Jew and Gentile) come to Him and worship Him (cf. 2:2-4; 19:18-25; Heb. 11:10; 12:22; 13:14; Rev. 21:1-2).

C. Cities represent people groups/nations.

Human Cities God’s City

1:7,8, burned Judean cities 1:26, the city of righteousness, a faithful city

1:21, the faithful city has become a harlot

6:11, Judean cities devastated

14:17,21, all cities devastated

14:31 cities of Philistia

17:1-3,9, cities of Syria ruined

19:2, cities of Egypt destroy each other 19:18-22, Egyptian cities worship God

19:23-25, all Egypt and Assyria included in

God’s people

22:2,9, the exultant city, Jerusalem falls

23, Tyre destroyed

24:1-25:5, universal destruction of cities

25:10-12, Moab and her palace, fortified 25:6-9, banquet on God’s mountain (i.e.,

cities trampled Jerusalem)

26:5, the unassailable city, probably Moab 26:1, a strong city, Jerusalem, restored

27:10, fortified cities fall

29:1, “Ariel” (Jerusalem)

33:2,19, the jubilant city (Jerusalem)

45:13, My city (cf. 44:23)

48:2, the holy city, but in name only

52:1-6, the holy city

60:14, the city of the Lord

62:12, a city not forsaken

66:6, a voice of uproar from the city, a voice from the temple

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SPECIAL TOPIC: Exegetical Procedures for Interpreting “The Unpardonable Sin”

A. Remember that the Gospels reflect a Jewish setting

1. Two kinds of sins (cf. Lev. 4:2,22,27; 5:15,17-19; Num. 15:27-31; Deut. 1:43; 17:12-13)

a. unintentional

b. intentional

2. Pre-Pentecostal Jewish setting (i.e., the fulfillment of the gospel and the Spirit have not yet been manifested)

B. Note the literary context of Mark 3:22-30

1. The unbelief of Jesus’ own family (cf. 3:31-32)

2. The unbelief of the Pharisees (cf. 2:24; 3:1,6,22)

C. Compare parallels where the title “Son of Man” changes to “sons of men”

1. Matt. 12:22-37 (i.e., 12:32, “a word against the Son of Man”)

2. Luke 11:14-26; 12:8-12 (i.e., 12:10, “a word against the Son of Man”)

3. Mark 3:28 (i.e., “All sins shall be forgiven the sons of men”)

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SPECIAL TOPIC: VICES AND VIRTUES IN THE NT

Lists of both vices and virtues are common in the NT. Often they reflect both rabbinical and cultural (Hellenistic) lists. The NT lists of contrasting characteristics can be seen in:

Vices Virtues

1. Paul Rom. 1:28-32 ---

Rom. 13:13 Rom. 12:9-21

I Cor. 5:9-11 ---

I Cor. 6:10 I Cor. 6:6-9

II Cor. 12:20 II Cor. 6:4-10

Gal. 5:19-21 Gal. 5:22-23

Eph. 4:25-32 ---

Eph. 5:3-5 ---

--- Phil. 4:8-9

Col. 3:5,8 Col. 3:12-14

I Tim. 1:9-10 ---

I Tim. 6:4-5 ---

II Tim. 2:22a,23 II Tim. 2:22b,24

Titus 1:7, 3:3 Titus 1:8-9; 3:1-2

2. James James 3:15-16 James 3:17-18

3. Peter I Pet. 4:3 I Pet. 4:7-11

II Pet. 1:9 II Pet. 1:5-8

4. John Rev. 21:8; 22:15 ---

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SPECIAL TOPIC: WAR IN HEAVEN

There has been much discussion as to the date of this confrontation. Jesus seems to mention this in Luke 10:18 and John 12:31. But to try to put a chronological dating to the event is tremendously difficult:

1. before Genesis 1:1 (before creation)

2. between Genesis 1:1 and 1:2 (gap theory)

3. in the OT after Job 1-2 (Satan in heaven)

4. in OT after I Kgs. 22:21 (Satan in heavenly council)

5. in the OT after Zechariah. 3 (Satan in heaven)

6. in the OT as in Isa. 14:12; Ezek. 28:15 and II Enoch 29:4-5 (Oriental kings condemned)

7. in the NT after Jesus’ temptation (cf. Matthew 4)

8. in the NT during the mission of the seventy (saw Satan fall from heaven, cf. Luke 10:18)

9. in the NT after the triumphal entry into Jerusalem (cf. John 12:31)

10. in the NT after Jesus’ resurrection and ascension (cf. Eph. 4:8; Col. 2:15)

11. at the end-time (cf. Rev. 12:7, possibly as Satan stormed heaven in search of the Child)

We should simply see it as the eternal battle between God and the host of evil; this conflict is going to be consummated in the utter defeat of the dragon and his host. In Revelation 20 they are removed and isolated!

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SPECIAL TOPIC: WEAKNESS

Here is the contrast. The false teachers boast in their credentials and rhetorical style, but Paul knows the value of “weakness” (astheneō). Notice how often these terms (or their various forms) are used in I and II Corinthians.

Boast Weak

I Corinthians 1:29,31 I Corinthians 1:25,27

3:21 2:3

4:7 4:10

5:6 8:7,9,10,11,12

9:15,16 9:22

II Corinthians 1:12,14 11:30

5:12 (twice) 12:22

7:4,14 (twice) 15:43

8:24 II Corinthians 10:10

9:2,3 11:21,29,30

10:8,13,15,16,17 12:5,9,10 (twice)

11:12,16,17,18,30 13:3,4 (twice), 9

12:1,5,6,9

Paul uses the concept of weakness in several different ways.

1. weakness of God, I Cor. 1:25

2. weak in the world, I Cor. 1:27

3. Paul’s weakness and fear, I Cor. 2:3; 9:22; II Cor. 11:29,30; 12:5

4. Paul and his mission team, I Cor. 4:10; II Cor. 11:21

5. weak believer (cf. Rom. 14:1-15:13), I Cor. 8:7,9,10,11,12; 9:22

6. physical illness, I Cor. 11:30

7. parts of the human body, I Cor. 12:22

8. physical body, I Cor. 15:43

9. Paul’s physical presence or his rhetorical skills, II Cor. 10:10

10. Paul’s weakness amplified God’s strength, II Cor. 12:9,10; 13:4,9

11. Christ’s message through Paul, II Cor.13:3

12. Christ’s physical body, II Cor. 13:4

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SPECIAL TOPIC: WEALTH

I. Perspective of the Old Testament as a whole

A. God is the owner of all things

1. Genesis 1-2

2. I Chronicles 29:11

3. Psalm 24:1; 50:12; 89:11

4. Isaiah 66:2

B. Humans are stewards of wealth for God’s purposes

1. Deuteronomy 8:11-20

2. Leviticus 19:9-18

3. Job 31:16-33

4. Isaiah 58:6-10

C. Wealth is a part of worship

1. the two tithes

a. Numbers 18:21-29; Deut. 12:6-7; 14:22-27

b. Deut. 14:28-29; 26:12-15

2. Proverbs 3:9

D. Wealth is seen as a gift from God for covenant fidelity

1. Deuteronomy 27-28

2. Proverbs 3:10; 8:20-21; 10:22; 15:6

E. Warning against wealth at the expense of others

1. Proverbs 21:6

2. Jeremiah 5:26-29

3. Hosea 12:6-8

4. Micah 6:9-12

F. Wealth is not sinful in itself unless it is priority

1. Psalm 52:7; 62:10; 73:3-9

2. Proverbs 11:28; 23:4-5; 27:24; 28:20-22

3. Job 31:24-28

II. Unique perspective of Proverbs

A. Wealth placed in arena of personal effort

1. slothfulness and laziness condemned—Proverbs 6:6-11; 10:4-5,26; 12:24,27; 13:4; 15:19; 18:9; 19:15,24; 20:4, 13; 21:25; 22:13; 24:30-34; 26:13-16

2. hard work advocated—Proverbs 12:11,14; 13:11

B. Poverty versus riches used to illustrate righteousness versus wickedness—Proverbs 10:1ff; 11:27-28; 13:7; 15:16-17; 28:6,19-20

C. Wisdom (knowing God and His Word and living this knowledge) is better than riches—Proverbs 3:13-15; 8:9-11,18-21; 13:18

D. Warnings and admonitions

1. warnings

a. beware of guarantying a neighbor’s loan (surety)—Proverbs 6:1-5; 11:15; 17:18; 20:16; 22:26-27; 27:13

b. beware of getting rich through evil means—Proverbs 1:19; 10:2,15; 11:1; 13:11; 16:11; 20:10,23; 21:6; 22:16,22; 28:8

c. beware of borrowing—Proverbs 22:7

d. beware of fleetingness of wealth—Proverbs 23:4-5

e. wealth will not help on judgment day—Proverbs 11:4

f. wealth has many “friends”—Proverbs 14:20; 19:4

2. admonitions

a. generosity advocated—Proverbs 11:24-26; 14:31; 17:5; 19:17; 22:9,22-23; 23:10-11; 28:27

b. righteousness better than wealth—Proverbs 16:8; 28:6,8,20-22

c. prayer for need, not abundance—Proverbs 30:7-9

d. giving to the poor is giving to God—Proverbs 14:31

III. Perspective of the New Testament

A. Jesus

1. wealth forms a unique temptation to trust in ourselves and our resources instead of God and His resources

a. Matthew 6:24; 13:22; 19:23

b. Mark 10:23-31

c. Luke 12:15-21,33-34

d. Revelation 3:17-19

2. God will provide our physical needs

a. Matthew 6:19-34

b. Luke 12:29-32

3. sowing is related to reaping (spiritual as well as physical)

a. Mark 4:24

b. Luke 6:36-38

c. Matthew 6:14; 18:35

4. repentance affects wealth

a. Luke 19:2-10

b. Leviticus 5:16

5. economic exploitation condemned

a. Matthew 23:25

b. Mark 12:38-40

6. end-time judgment is related to our use of wealth—Matthew 25:31-46

B. Paul

1. practical view like Proverbs (work)

a. Ephesians 4:28

b. I Thessalonians 4:11-12

c. II Thessalonians 3:8,11-12

d. I Timothy 5:8

2. spiritual view like Jesus (things are fleeting, be content)

a. I Timothy 6:6-10 (contentment)

b. Philippians 4:11-12 (contentment)

c. Hebrews 13:5 (contentment)

d. I Timothy 6:17-19 (generosity and trust in God, not riches)

e. I Corinthians 7:30-31 (transformation of things)

IV. Conclusions

A. There is no systematic biblical theology concerning wealth.

B. There is no definitive passage on this subject, therefore, insights much be gleaned from different passages. Take care not to read your views into these isolated texts.

C. Proverbs, which was written by the wise men (sages), has a different perspective than other types of biblical genre. Proverbs is practical and individually focused. It balances and must be balanced by other Scripture (cf. Jer. 18:18).

D. Our day needs to analyze its views and practices concerning wealth in light of the Bible. Our priorities are misplaced if capitalism or communism are our only guide. Why and how one succeeds are more important questions than how much one has accumulated.

E. Accumulation of wealth must be balanced with true worship and responsible stewardship (cf.

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II Corinthians 8-9).

SPECIAL TOPIC: WHY DO CHRISTIANS SUFFER?

1. Because of personal sin (temporal judgment). This does not imply that all problems and negative circumstances are a result of sin (cf. Job; Ps. 73; Luke 14:1-5; Neh. 9; Acts 5:1-11; I Cor. 11:29-30; Gal. 6:7).

2. To develop Christlikeness (Heb. 5:8). Even Jesus, humanly speaking, had to be matured, so too, His followers (cf. Rom. 5:3-4, 8:28-29; II Cor. 12:7-10; Phil. 3:10; Heb. 12:5-12; James 1:2-4; I Pet. 1:7).

3. To develop a powerful, effective witness (cf. Matt. 5:10-12; John 15:18-22; I Pet. 2:18-21, 3:13-17).

4. As a sign of the birth pains of the New Age (cf. Matt. 24:6; Mark 13:8).

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SPECIAL TOPIC: THE WILL (thelēma) OF GOD

JOHN’S GOSPEL

‒ Jesus came to do the Father’s will (cf. 4:34; 5:30; 6:38)

‒ to raise up on the last day all whom the Father gave the Son (cf. 6:39)

‒ that all believe in the Son (cf. 6:29,40)

‒ answered prayer related to doing God’s will (cf. 9:31 and I John 5:14)

THE SYNOPTIC GOSPELS

‒ doing God’s will is crucial (cf. Matt. 7:21)

‒ doing God’s will makes one brother and sister with Jesus (cf. Matt. 12:50; Mark 3:35)

‒ it is not God’s will for any to perish (cf. Matt. 18:14; I Tim. 2:4; II Pet. 3:9)

‒ Calvary was the Father’s will for Jesus (cf. Matt. 26:42; Luke 22:42)

PAUL’S LETTERS

‒ the maturity and service of all believers (cf. Rom. 12:1-2)

‒ believers delivered from this evil age (cf. Gal. 1:4)

‒ God’s will was His redemptive plan (cf. Eph. 1:5,9,11)

‒ believers experiencing and living the Spirit-filled life (cf. Eph. 5:17-18)

‒ believers filled with the knowledge of God (cf. Col. 1:9)

‒ believers made perfect and complete (cf. Col. 4:12)

‒ believers sanctified (cf. I Thess. 4:3)

‒ believers giving thanks in all things (cf. I Thess. 5:18)

PETER’S LETTERS

‒ believers doing right (i.e., submitting to civil authorities) and thereby silencing foolish men, providing an opportunity for evangelism (cf. I Pet. 2:15)

‒ believers suffering (cf. I Pet. 3:17; 4:19)

‒ believers not living self-centered lives (cf. I Pet. 4:2)

JOHN’S LETTERS

‒ believers abiding forever (cf. I John 2:17)

‒ believers key to answered prayer (cf. I John 5:14)

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SPECIAL TOPIC: WITNESSES TO JESUS

The noun (marturia) and its verb (martureō) “witness” is a key term in John. There are many witnesses to Jesus.

1. John the Baptist (cf. John1:7,8,15; 3:26,28; 5:33)

2. Jesus Himself (cf. John 3:11; 5:31; 8:13-14)

3. the Samaritan woman (cf. John 4:39)

4. God the Father (cf. John 5:32,34,37; 8:18; I John 5:9)

5. Scripture (cf. John 5:39)

6. the crowd at Lazarus’ raising (cf. John 12:17)

7. the Spirit (cf. John 15:26-27; I John 5:10,11)

8. the disciples (cf. John 15:27; 19:35; I John 1:2; 4:14)

9. the author himself (cf. John 21:24)

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SPECIAL TOPIC: WOMEN IN THE BIBLE

I. The Old Testament

A. Culturally women were considered property

1. included in list of property (Exodus 20:17)

2. treatment of slave women (Exodus 21:7-11)

3. women’s vows annullable by socially responsible male (Numbers 30)

4. women as spoils of war (Deuteronomy 20:10-14; 21:10-14)

B. Practically there was a mutuality

1. male and female made in God’s image (Genesis 1:26-27)

2. honor father and mother (Exodus 20:12 [Deut. 5:16])

3. reverence mother and father (Leviticus 19:3; 20:9)

4. men and women could be Nazirites (Numbers 6:1-2)

5. daughters have right of inheritance (Numbers 27:1-11)

6. part of covenant people (Deuteronomy 29:10-12)

7. observe teaching of father and mother (Proverbs 1:8; 6:20)

8. sons and daughters of Heman (Levite family) led music in Temple (I Chronicles 25:5-6)

9. sons and daughters will prophesy in new age (Joel 2:28-29)

C. Women were in leadership roles

1. Moses’ sister, Miriam, called a prophetess (Exodus 15:20-21 also note Micah 6:4)

2. women gifted by God to weave material for the Tabernacle (Exodus 35:25-26)

3. a woman, Deborah, also a prophetess (cf. Jdgs. 4:4), led all the tribes (Judges 4:4-5; 5:7)

4. Huldah was a prophetess whom King Josiah invoked to read and interpret the newly-found “Book of the Law” (II Kings 22:14; II Chr. 34:22-27)

5. Queen Esther, a godly woman, saved Jews in Persia

II. The New Testament

A. Culturally women in both Judaism and the Greco-Roman world were second class citizens with few rights or privileges (the exception was Macedonia).

B. Women in leadership roles

1. Elizabeth and Mary, godly women available to God (Luke 1-2)

2. Anna, godly woman serving at the Temple (Luke 2:36)

3. Lydia, believer and leader of a house church (Acts 16:14,40)

4. Philip’s four virgin daughters were prophetesses (Acts 21:8-9)

5. Phoebe, deaconess of church at Cenchrea (Rom. 16:1)

6. Prisca (Priscilla), Paul’s fellow-worker and teacher of Apollos (Acts 18:26; Rom. 16:3)

7. Mary, Tryphaena, Tryphosa, Persis, Julia, Nereus’ sister, several women co-workers of Paul (Rom. 16:6-16)

8. Junia (KJV), possibly a woman apostle (Rom. 16:7)

9. Euodia and Syntyche, co-workers with Paul (Phil. 4:2-3)

III. How does a modern believer balance the divergent biblical examples?

A. How does one determine historical or cultural truths, which apply only to the original context, from eternal truths valid for all churches, all believers of all ages?

1. We must take the intent of the original inspired author very seriously. The Bible is the Word of God and the only source for faith and practice.

2. We must deal with the obviously historically-conditioned inspired texts.

a. the cultus (i.e., ritual and liturgy) of Israel (cf. Acts 15; Gal. 3)

b. first century Judaism

c. Paul’s obviously historically-conditioned statements in I Corinthians

(1) the legal system of pagan Rome (I Cor. 6)

(2) remaining a slave (I Cor. 7:20-24)

(3) celibacy (I Cor. 7:1-35)

(4) virgins (I Cor. 7:36-38)

(5) food sacrificed to an idol (I Cor. 8; 10:23-33)

(6) unworthy actions at Lord’s Supper (I Cor. 11)

3. God fully and clearly revealed Himself to a particular culture, a particular day. We must take seriously the revelation, but not every aspect of its historical accommodation. The Word of God was written in human words, addressed to a particular culture at a particular time.

B. Biblical interpretation must seek the original author’s intent. What was he saying to his day? This is foundational and crucial for proper interpretation. But then we must apply this to our own day. Now, here is the problem with women in leadership (the real interpretive problem may be defining the term. Were there more ministries than pastors who were seen as leadership? Were deaconesses or prophetesses seen as leaders?) It is quite clear that Paul, in I Cor. 14:34-35 and I Tim. 2:9-15, is asserting that women should not take the lead in public worship! But how do I apply that today? I do not want Paul’s culture or my culture to silence God’s Word and will. Possibly Paul’s day was too limiting, but also my day may be too open. I feel so uncomfortable

saying that Paul’s words and teachings are conditional, first century, local situational truths. Who am I that I should let my mind or my culture negate an inspired author?!

However, what do I do when there are biblical examples of women leaders (even in Paul’s writings, cf. Romans 16)? A good example of this is Paul’s discussion of public worship in

I Corinthians 11-14. In 11:5 he seems to allow women’s preaching and praying in public worship with their heads covered, yet in 14:34-35 he demands they remain silent! There were deaconesses (cf. Rom. 16:1) and prophetesses (cf. Acts 21:9). It is this diversity that allows me freedom to identify Paul’s comments (as relates to restrictions on women) as limited to first century Corinth and Ephesus. In both churches there were problems with women exercising their newly-found freedom (cf. Bruce Winter, After Paul Left Corinth), which could have caused difficulty for the church in reaching their society for Christ. Their freedom had to be limited so that the gospel could be more effective.

My day is just the opposite of Paul’s. In my day the gospel might be limited if articulate, trained women are not allowed to share the gospel, not allowed to lead! What is the ultimate goal of public worship? Is it not evangelism and discipleship? Can God be honored and pleased with women leaders? The Bible as a whole seems to say “yes”!

I want to yield to Paul; my theology is primarily Pauline. I do not want to be overly influenced or manipulated by modern feminism! However, I feel the church has been slow to respond to obvious biblical truths, like the inappropriateness of slavery, racism, bigotry, and sexism. It has also been slow to respond appropriately to the abuse of women in the modern world. God in Christ set free the slave and the woman. I dare not let a culture-bound text reshackle them.

One more point: as an interpreter I know that Corinth was a very disrupted church. The charismatic gifts were prized and flaunted. Women may have been caught up in this. I also believe that Ephesus was being affected by false teachers who were taking advantage of women and using them as surrogate speakers in the house churches of Ephesus.

C. Suggestions for further reading

How to Read the Bible For All Its Worth by Gordon Fee and Doug Stuart (pp. 61-77)

Gospel and Spirit: Issues in New Testament Hermeneutics by Gordon Fee

Hard Sayings of the Bible by Walter C. Kaiser, Peter H. Davids, F. F. Bruce, and Manfred T. Branch (pp. 613-616; 665-667)

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SPECIAL TOPIC: PAUL’S USE OF WOMEN IN MINISTRY

Notice all of the women in Romans 16 who were fellow-workers with Paul in the gospel (cf. Phil. 4:3): Phoebe in v. 1; Prisca in v. 3; Mary in v. 6; Junia (or Junias—if so it was a man) in v. 7; Tryphaena and Tryphosa in v. 12; Persis in v. 12; “his mother” in v. 13; Julia in v. 15; and “his sister” in v. 15. Be careful of dogmatism in the area of women in ministry. All believers are gifted (cf. I Cor. 12:7,11); all believers are full-time ministers (cf. Eph. 4:12). In this list we have a woman deacon, Phoebe, and a possible woman apostle, Junia (cf. Joel 2:28; Acts 2:16-21). It is difficult to know how to handle this issue biblically because of the seemingly paradoxical statements of Paul such as I Cor. 11:4-5 compared with 14:34.

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SPECIAL TOPIC: THEORIES RELATED TO “WOMEN KEEP SILENT”

I. This is not a statement from Paul, but a later addition (cf. Gordon Fee, New International Commentary, “I Corinthians,” pp. 699-708), usually based on some Greek manuscripts (i.e., MSS D, F, G; one MS of the Vulgate; Latin church Father Ambrosiaster, after a.d. 384) which put vv. 33-34 after v. 40.

II. Paul is quoting the letter from the Church, which states the false views of the factious group. Paul quotes it to deny it. However, this protracted discussion (i.e., vv. 33-35 or 36) does not fit Paul’s earlier “slogans.” It is not a simple statement modified by Paul, but a sustained argument.

III. Paul is referring to a problem group of women who are disrupting the worship service either by tongues, prophecy, or questions. Their exuberance in their new freedom in Christ was causing cultural difficulties in evangelism and worship.

IV. Paul is limiting women, not in public prophesying, but in evaluating other prophets’ (i.e., male prophets) messages, thereby implying an authority over them (James Hurley, Men and Women in Biblical Perspective, pp. 185-194 and Wayne Grudem, The Gift of Prophecy in I Corinthians, pp. 239-255).

V. Paul is dealing with different situations in 11:5 and 14:34.

A. One is a house church (i.e., 11:5) and one is the gathered church (i.e., 14:34)

B. 11:5 is addressed to single women and 14:34 to married women

C. Some women were unruly or too outspoken

The variety and number of interpretations shows the uncertainty of modern interpreters related to the worship practices of Corinth and for that matter, first century Christian congregations. Was the problem

1. local (i.e., uniquely Corinth)

2. first century Roman culture

3. abuse of giftedness

4. attempt to dominate by women

5. attempt to impose a Jewish structure

6. false view of a factious group at Corinth

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SPECIAL TOPIC: THE WOMEN WHO FOLLOWED JESUS

A. The first mention of the women followers of Jesus who helped Him and the Apostolic band is Luke 8:1-3.

1. Mary, who was called Magdalene (v. 2)

a. Matt. 27:56,61; 28:1

b. Mark 15:40,47; 16:1,9

c. Luke 8:2; 24:10

d. John 19:25; 20:1,11,16,18

2. Joanna, the wife of Chuza (Herod’s servant, v. 3) is listed also in Luke 24:10

3. Susanna (v. 3)

4. “and many others who were contributing to their support out of their private means” (v. 3)

B. A group of women are mentioned as being present at the crucifixion

1. Matthew’s list

a. Mary Magdalene (27:56)

b. Mary the mother of James and Josephus (27:56)

c. the mother of the sons of Zebedee (27:56)

2. Mark’s list

a. Mary Magdalene (25:40)

b. Mary the mother of James the Less and Joses (15:40)

c. Salome (15:40)

3. Luke says only, “the women who accompanied Him from Galilee” (23:49)

4. John’s list

a. Mary, Jesus’ mother (19:25)

b. His mother’s sister (19:25)

c. Mary of Clopas [KJ Cleophas, this could mean wife of Clopas or daughter of Clopas] (19:25)

d. Mary Magdalene (19:25)

C. A group of women is mentioned observing the place of Jesus’ burial

1. Matthew’s list

a. Mary Magdalene (27:61)

b. the other Mary (27:61)

2. Mark’s list

a. Mary Magdalene (15:47)

b. Mary the mother of Joses (15:47)

3. Luke says only, “the women who had come with Him out of Galilee” (23:55)

4. John has no record of the women seeing the tomb

D. A group of women came to the tomb early Sunday morning

1. Matthew’s list

a. Mary Magdalene (28:1)

b. the other Mary (28:1)

2. Mark’s list

a. Mary Magdalene (16:1)

b. Mary the mother of James (16:1)

c. Salome (16:1)

3. Luke’s list

a. “they came to the tomb” (24:1-5,24)

(1) Mary Magdalene (24:10)

(2) Joanna (24:10)

(3) Mary the mother of James (24:10)

4. John lists only Mary Magdalene (20:1,11)

E. The women are mentioned as being present in the upper room (Acts 1:14)

1. “the women” (1:14)

2. Mary the mother of Jesus (1:14)

F. The exact relationship between the different women in these different lists is uncertain. Mary Magdalene obviously has a predominate role. A good article on “women” in Jesus’ life and ministry is found in Dictionary of Jesus and the Gospels published by IVP, pp. 880-886.

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SPECIAL TOPIC: WOMEN WHO TRAVELED WITH JESUS AND HIS DISCIPLES

Matt. 27:55-56 Mark 15:40-41 Luke 8:2; 23:49 John 19:75

Mary Magdalene Mary Magdalene Mary Magdalene Mary, Jesus’ mother

Mary, mother of James Mary, mother of James Joanna, wife of Chuza His mother’s sister

and Joseph the Less, Joses (Herod’s steward) Mary, wife of Clopas

Mother of the sons of Salome Susanna Mary Magdalene

Zebedee (James and others

and John)

Following are the notes on these women from my commentary on Mark 15:40-41:

“There were also some women looking on from a distance” The apostolic group was ministered to both financially

and physically by several women (i.e. cooking, washing, etc., cf. v. 41; Matt. 27:55; Luke 8:3).

“Mary Magdalene” Magdala was a small city on the shores of the Sea of Galilee, three miles north of Tiberias.

Mary followed Jesus from Galilee after He had delivered her from several demons (cf. Luke 8:2). She has unfairly

been labeled as a prostitute but there is no NT evidence of this.

“Mary, the mother of James the Less and Joses” In Matt. 27:56 she is called “the mother of James and

Joseph.” In Matt. 28:1 she is called “the other Mary.” The real question is, to whom was she married?

In John 19:25 possibly she was married to Clopas, yet her son James, was said to be the “son of Alphaeus”

(cf. Matt. 10:3; Mark 3:18; Luke 6:15).

“Salome” This was the mother of James and John, who were part of the inner circle of Jesus’ disciples, and

the wife of Zebedee (cf. Matt. 27:56; Mark 15:40; 16:1-2).

Following are my the notes on these women from my commentary on John 19:25:

“standing by the cross of Jesus were His mother, and His mother’s sister, Mary, the wife of Clopas,

and Mary Magdalene” There is much discussion about whether there are four names here or three names.

It is probable that there are four names because there would not be two sisters named Mary. Mary’s sister, Salome,

is named in Mark 15:40 and Matt. 27:56. If this is true, then it would mean James, John, and Jesus were cousins.

A second-century tradition (Hegesippus) says that Clopas was Joseph’s brother. Mary of Magdala was the one out

of whom Jesus cast seven devils, and the first one to whom He chose to appear after His resurrection (cf. 20:1-2; 11-18;

Mark 16:1; Luke 24:1-10).

APPENDIX ONE

BRIEF DEFINITIONS OF GREEK GRAMMATICAL TERMS

Koine Greek, often called Hellenistic Greek, was the common language of the Mediterranean world beginning with Alexander the Great's (336-323 b.c.) conquest and lasting about eight hundred years (300 b.c.-a.d. 500). It was not just a simplified, classical Greek, but in many ways a newer form of Greek that became the second language of the ancient near east and Mediterranean world.

The Greek of the New Testament was unique in some ways because its users, except Luke and the author of Hebrews, probably used Aramaic as their primary language. Therefore, their writing was influenced by the idioms and structural forms of Aramaic. Also, they read and quoted the Septuagint (Greek translation of the OT) which was also written in Koine Greek. But the Septuagint was also written by Jewish scholars whose mother tongue was not Greek.

This serves as a reminder that we cannot push the New Testament into a tight grammatical structure. It is unique and yet has much in common with (1) the Septuagint; (2) Jewish writings such as those of Josephus; and (3) the papyri found in Egypt. How then do we approach a grammatical analysis of the New Testament?

The grammatical features of Koine Greek and New Testament Koine Greek are fluid. In many ways it was a time of simplification of grammar. Context will be our major guide. Words only have meaning in a larger context, therefore, grammatical structure can only be understood in light of (1) a particular author's style; and (2) a particular context. No conclusive definitions of Greek forms and structures are possible.

Koine Greek was primarily a verbal language. Often the key to interpretation is the type and form of the verbals. In most main clauses the verb will occur first, showing its preeminence. In analyzing the Greek verb three pieces of information must be noted: (1) the basic emphasis of the tense, voice and mood (accidence or morphology); (2) the basic meaning of the particular verb (lexicography); and (3) the flow of the context (syntax).

I. TENSE

A. Tense or aspect involves the relationship of the verbs to completed action or incomplete action. This is often called “perfective” and “imperfective.”

1. Perfective tenses focus on the occurrence of an action. No further information is given except that something happened! Its start, continuation or culmination is not addressed.

2. Imperfective tenses focus on the continuing process of an action. It can be described in terms of linear action, durative action, progressive action, etc.

B. Tenses can be categorized by how the author sees the action as progressing

1. It occurred = aorist

2. It occurred and the results abide = perfect

3. It was occurring in the past and the results were abiding, but not now = pluperfect

4. It is occurring = present

5. It was occurring = imperfect

6. It will occur = future

A concrete example of how these tenses help in interpretation would be the term “save.” It was used in several different tenses to show both its process and culmination:

1. aorist – “saved” (cf. Rom. 8:24)

2. perfect – “have been saved and the result continues” (cf. Eph. 2:5,8)

3. present – “being saved” (cf. I Cor. 1:18; 15:2)

4. future – “shall be saved” (cf. Rom. 5:9, 10; 10:9)

C. In focusing on verb tenses, interpreters look for the reason the original author chose to express himself in a certain tense. The standard “no frills” tense was the aorist. It was the regular “unspecific,” “unmarked,” or “unflagged” verb form. It can be used in a wide variety of ways which the context must specify. It simply was stating that something occurred. The past time aspect is only intended in the indicative mood. If any other tense was used, something more specific was being emphasized. But what?

1. perfect tense. This speaks of a completed action with abiding results. In some ways it was a combination of the aorist and present tenses. Usually the focus is on the abiding results or the completion of an act (example: Eph. 2:5 & 8, “you have been and continue to be saved”).

2. pluperfect tense. This was like the perfect except the abiding results have ceased. Example: John 18:16 “Peter was standing at the door outside.”

3. present tense. This speaks of an incomplete or imperfect action. The focus is usually on the continuation of the event. Example: I John 3:6 & 9, “Everyone abiding in Him does not continue sinning.” “Everyone having been begotten of God does not continue to commit sin.”

4. imperfect tense. In this tense the relationship to the present tense is analogous to the relationship between the perfect and the pluperfect. The imperfect speaks of incomplete action that was occurring but has now ceased or the beginning of an action in the past. Example: Matt. 3:5, “then all Jerusalem were continuing to go out to him” or “then all Jerusalem began to go out to him.”

5. future tense. This speaks of an action that was usually projected into a future time frame. It focused on the potential for an occurrence rather than an actual occurrence. It often speaks of the certainty of the event. Example: Matt. 5:4-9, “Blessed are...they will....”

II. VOICE

A. Voice describes the relationship between the action of the verb and its subject.

B. active voice was the normal, expected, unemphasized way to assert that the subject was performing the action of the verb.

C. The passive voice means that the subject was receiving the action of the verb produced by an outside agent. The outside agent producing the action was indicated in the Greek NT by the following prepositions and cases:

1. a personal direct agent by hupo with the ablative case (cf. Matt.1:22; Acts 22:30).

2. a personal intermediate agent by dia with the ablative case (cf. Matt. 1:22).

3. an impersonal agent usually by en with the instrumental case.

4. sometimes either a personal or impersonal agent by the instrumental case alone.

D. The middle voice means that the subject produces the action of the verb and is also directly involved in the action of the verb. It is often called the voice of heightened personal interest. This construction emphasized the subject of the clause or sentence in some way. This construction is not found in English. It has a wide possibility of meanings and translations in Greek. Some examples of the form are:

1. reflexive – the direct action of the subject on itself. Example: Matt. 27:5 “hanged himself.”

2. intensive – the subject produces the action for itself. Example: II Cor. 11:14 “Satan himself masquerades as an angel of light.”

3. reciprocal – the interplay of two subjects. Example: Matt. 26:4 “they counseled with one another.”

III. MOOD (or “MODE”)

A. There are four moods in Koine Greek. They indicate the relation of the verb to reality, at least within the author’s own mind. The moods are divided into two broad categories: that which indicated reality (indicative) and that which indicated potentiality (subjunctive, imperative and optative).

B. The indicative mood was the normal mood for expressing action that had occurred or was occurring, at least in the author’s mind. It was the only Greek mood that expressed a definite time, and even here this aspect was secondary.

C. The subjunctive mood expressed probable future action. Something had not yet happened, but the chances were likely that it would. It had much in common with the future indicative. The difference was that the subjunctive expresses some degree of doubt. In English this is often expressed by the terms “could,” “would,” “may,” or “might.”

D. The optative mood expressed a wish which was theoretically possible. It was considered one step further from reality than the subjunctive. The optative expressed possibility under certain conditions. The optative was rare in the New Testament. Its most frequent usage is Paul’s famous phrase, “May it never be” (KJV, “God forbid”), used fifteen times (cf. Rom. 3:4, 6, 31; 6:2, 15; 7:7, 13; 9:14; 11:1, 11; I Cor. 6:15; Gal. 2:17; 3:21; 6:14). Other examples are found in Luke 1:38, 20:16, Acts 8:20, and I Thess. 3:11.

E. The imperative mood emphasized a command which was possible, but the emphasis was on the intent of the speaker. It asserted only volitional possibility and was conditioned on the choices of another. There was a special use of the imperative in prayers and 3rd person requests. These commands were found only in the present and aorist tenses in the NT.

F. Some grammars categorize participles as another type of mood. They are very common in the Greek NT, usually defined as verbal adjectives. They are translated in conjunction with the main verb to which they relate. A wide variety was possible in translating participles. It is best to consult several English translations. The Bible in Twenty Six Translations published by Baker is a great help here.

G. The aorist active indicative was the normal or “unmarked” way to record an occurrence. Any other tense, voice or mood had some specific interpretive significance that the original author wanted to communicate.

IV. For the person not familiar with Greek the following study aids will provide the needed information:

A. Friberg, Barbara and Timothy. Analytical Greek New Testament. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1988.

B. Marshall, Alfred. Interlinear Greek-English New Testament. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1976.

C. Mounce, William D. The Analytical Lexicon to the Greek New Testament. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1993.

D. Summers, Ray. Essentials of New Testament Greek. Nashville: Broadman, 1950.

E. Academically accredited Koine Greek correspondence courses are available through Moody Bible Institute in Chicago, IL.

V. NOUNS

A. Syntactically, nouns are classified by case. case was that inflected form of a noun that showed its relationship to the verb and other parts of the sentence. In Koine Greek many of the case functions were indicated by prepositions. Since the case form was able to identify several different relationships, the prepositions developed to give clearer separation to these possible functions.

B. Greek case are categorized in the following eight ways:

1. The nominative case was used for naming and it usually was the subject of the sentence or clause. It was also used for predicate nouns and adjectives with the linking verbs “to be” or “become.”

2. The genitive case was used for description and usually assigned an attribute or quality to the word to which it was related. It answered the question, "What kind?" It was often expressed by the use of the English preposition “of.”

3. The ablative case used the same inflected form as the genitive, but it was used to describe separation. It usually denoted separation from a point in time, space, source, origin or degree. It was often expressed by the use of the English preposition “from.”

4. The dative case was used to describe personal interest. This could denote a positive or negative aspect. Often this was the indirect object. It was often expressed by the English preposition “to.”

5. The locative case was the same inflected form as the dative, but it described position or location in space, time or logical limits. It was often expressed by the English prepositions “in, on, at, among, during, by, upon, and beside.”

6. The instrumental case was the same inflected form as the dative and locative cases. It expressed means or association. It was often expressed by the English prepositions, “by” or “with.”

7. The accusative case was used to describe the conclusion of an action. It expressed limitation. Its main use was the direct object. It answered the question, “How far?” or “To what extent?”

8. The vocative case was used for direct address.

VI. CONJUNCTIONS AND CONNECTORS

A. Greek is a very precise language because it has so many connectives. They connect thoughts (clauses, sentences, and paragraphs). They are so common that their absence (asyndeton) is often exegetically significant. As a matter of fact, these conjunctions and connectors show the direction of the author’s thought. They often are crucial in determining what exactly he is trying to communicate.

B. Here is a list of some of the conjunctions and connectors and their meanings (this information has been gleaned mostly from H. E. Dana and Julius K. Mantey’s A Manual Grammar of the Greek New Testament).

1. Time connectors

a. epei, epeidē, hopote, hōs, hote, hotan (subj.) – “when”

b. heōs – “while”

c. hotan, epan (subj.) – “whenever”

d. heōs, achri, mechri (subj.) – “until”

e. priv (infin.) – “before”

f. hōs – “since,” “when,” “as”

2. Logical connectors

a. Purpose

(1) hina (subj.), hopōs (subj.), hōs – “in order that,” “that”

(2) hōste (articular accusative infinitive) – “that”

(3) pros (articular accusative infinitive) or eis (articular accusative infinitive) – “that”

b. Result (there is a close association between the grammatical forms of purpose and result)

(1) hōste (infinitive, this is the most common) – “in order that,” “thus”

(2) hiva (subj.) – “so that”

(3) ara – “so”

c. Causal or reason

(1) gar (cause/effect or reason/conclusion) – “for,” “because”

(2) dioti, hotiy – “because”

(3) epei, epeidē, hōs – “since”

(4) dia (with accusative) and (with articular infin.) – “because”

d. Inferential

(1) ara, poinun, hōste – “therefore”

(2) dio (strongest inferential conjunction) – “on which account,” “wherefore,” “therefore”

(3) oun – “therefore,” “so,” “then,” “consequently”

(4) toinoun – “accordingly”

e. Adversative or contrast

(1) alla (strong adversative) – “but,” “except”

(2) de – “but,” “however,” “yet,” “on the other hand”

(3) kai – “but”

(4) mentoi, oun – “however”

(5) plēn – “never-the-less” (mostly in Luke)

(6) oun – “however”

f. Comparison

(1) hōs, kathōs (introduce comparative clauses)

(2) kata (in compounds, katho, kathoti, kathōsper, kathaper)

(3) hosos (in Hebrews)

(4) ē – “than”

g. Continuative or series

(1) de – “and,” “now”

(2) kai – “and”

(3) tei –“and”

(4) hina, oun – “that”

(5) oun – “then” (in John)

3. Emphatic usages

a. alla – “certainty,” “yea,” “in fact”

b. ara – “indeed,” “certainly,” “really”

c. gar – “but really,” “certainly,” “indeed”

d. de – “indeed”

e. ean – “even”

f. kai – “even,” “indeed,” “really”

g. mentoi – “indeed”

h. oun – “really,” “by all means”

VII. CONDITIONAL SENTENCES

A. A conditional sentence is one that contains one or more conditional clauses. This grammatical structure aids interpretation because it provides the conditions, reasons or causes why the action of the main verb does or does not occur. There were four types of conditional sentences. They move from that which was assumed to be true from the author’s perspective or for his purpose to that which was only a wish.

B. The first class conditional sentence expressed action or being which was assumed to be true from the writer’s perspective or for his purposes even though it was expressed with an “if.” In several contexts it could be translated “since” (cf. Matt. 4:3; Rom. 8:31). However, this does not mean to imply that all first classes are true to reality. Often they were used to make a point in an argument or to highlight a fallacy (cf. Matt. 12:27).

C. The second class conditional sentence is often called “contrary to fact.” It states something that was untrue to reality to make a point. Examples:

1. “If He were really a prophet which He is not, He would know who and of what character the woman is who is clinging to Him, but He does not” (Luke 7:39)

2. “If you really believed Moses, which you do not, you would believe me, which you do not” (John 5:46)

3. “If I were still trying to be pleasing to men, which I am not, I would not be a slave of Christ at all, which I am” (Gal. 1:10)

D. The third class speaks of possible future action. It often assumes the probability of that action. It usually implies a contingency. The action of the main verb is contingent on the action in the “if” clause. Examples from I John: 1:6-10; 2:4,6,9,15,20,21,24,29; 3:21; 4:20; 5:14,16.

E. The fourth class is the farthest removed from possibility. It is rare in the NT. As a matter of fact, there is no complete fourth class conditional sentence in which both parts of the condition fit the definition. An example of a partial fourth class is the opening clause in I Pet. 3:14. An example of a partial fourth class in the concluding clause is Acts 8:31.

VIII. PROHIBITIONS

A. The present imperative with mē particle often (but not exclusively) has the emphasis of stopping an act already in process. Some examples: “stop storing up your riches on earth. . .” (Matt. 6:19); “stop worrying about your life. . .” (Matt. 6:25); “stop offering to sin the parts of your bodies as instruments of wrongdoing. . .” (Rom. 6:13); “you must stop offending the Holy Spirit of God. . .” (Eph. 4:30); and “stop getting drunk on wine. . .” (5:18).

B. The aorist subjunctive with mē particle has the emphasis of “do not even begin or start an act.” Some examples: “Do not even begin to suppose that. . .” (Matt. 5:17); “never start to worry. . .” (Matt. 6:31); “you must never be ashamed. . .” (II Tim. 1:8).

C. The double negative with the subjunctive mood is a very emphatic negation. “Never, no never” or “not under any circumstance.” Some examples: “he will never, no never experience death” (John 8:51); “I will never, no, never. . .” (I Cor. 8:13).

IX. THE ARTICLE

A. In Koine Greek the definite article “the” had a use similar to English. Its basic function was that of “a pointer,” a way to draw attention to a word, name or phrase. The use varies from author to author in the New Testament. The definite article could also function

1. as a contrasting device like a demonstrative pronoun

2. as a sign to refer to a previously introduced subject or person

3. as a way to identify the subject in a sentence with a linking verb. Examples: “God is Spirit” (John 4:24); “God is light” (I John 1:5); “God is love” (4:8,16).

B. Koine Greek did not have an indefinite article like the English “a” or “an.” The absence of the definite article could mean

1. a focus on the characteristics or quality of something

2. a focus on the category of something

C. The NT authors varied widely as to how the article was employed.

X. WAYS OF SHOWING EMPHASIS IN THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT

A. The techniques for showing emphasis vary from author to author in the New Testament. The most consistent and formal writers were Luke and the author of Hebrews.

B. We have stated earlier that the aorist active indicative was standard and unmarked for emphasis, but any other tense, voice or mood had interpretive significance. This is not to imply that the aorist active indicative was not often used in a significant grammatical sense. (Example: Rom. 6:10 [twice]).

C. Word order in Koine Greek

1. Koine Greek was an inflected language which was not dependent, like English, on word order. Therefore, the author could vary the normal expected order to show

a. what the author wanted to emphasize to the reader

b. what the author thought would be surprising to the reader

c. what the author felt deeply about

2. The normal word order in Greek is still an unsettled issue. However, the supposed normal order is:

a. for linking verbs

(1) verb

(2) subject

(3) complement

b. for transitive verbs

(1) verb

(2) subject

(3) object

(4) indirect object

(5) prepositional phrase

c. for noun phrases

(1) noun

(2) modifier

(3) prepositional phrase

3. Word order can be an extremely important exegetical point. Examples:

a.“right hand they gave to me and Barnabas of fellowship.” The phrase “right hand of fellowship” is split and fronted to show its significance (Gal. 2:9).

b. “with Christ” was placed first. His death was central (Gal. 2:20).

c. “It was bit by bit and in many different ways” (Heb. 1:1) was placed first. It was how God revealed Himself that was being contrasted, not the fact of revelation.

D. Usually some degree of emphasis was shown by

1. The repetition of the pronoun which was already present in the verb's inflected form. Example: “I, myself, will surely be with you. . .” (Matt. 28:20).

2. The absence of an expected conjunction, or other connecting device between words, phrases, clauses or sentences. This is called an asyndeton (“not bound”). The connecting device was expected, so its absence would draw attention. Examples:

a. The Beatitudes, Matt. 5:3ff (emphasized the list)

b. John 14:1 (new topic)

c. Romans 9:1 (new section)

d. II Cor. 12:20 (emphasize the list)

3. The repetition of words or phrases present in a given context. Examples: “to the praise of His glory” (Eph. 1:6, 12 & 14). This phrase was used to show the work of each person of the Trinity.

4. The use of an idiom or word (sound) play between terms

a. euphemisms – substitute words for taboo subjects, like “sleep” for death (John 11:11-14) or “feet” for male genitalia (Ruth 3:7-8; I Sam. 24:3).

b. circumlocutions – substitute words for God’s name, like “Kingdom of heaven” ( Matt. 3:21) or “a voice from heaven” (Matt. 3:17).

c. figures of speech

(1) impossible exaggerations (Matt. 3:9; 5:29-30; 19:24)

(2) mild over statements (Matt. 3:5; Acts 2:36)

(3) personifications (I Cor. 15:55)

(4) irony (Gal. 5:12)

(5) poetic passages (Phil. 2:6-11)

(6) sound plays between words

(a) “church”

(i) “church” (Eph. 3:21)

(ii) “calling” (Eph. 4:1,4)

(iii) “called” (Eph. 4:1,4)

(b) “free”

(i) “free woman” (Gal. 4:31)

(ii) “freedom” (Gal. 5:1)

(iii) “free” (Gal. 5:1)

d. idiomatic language – language which is usually cultural and language specific:

(1) figurative use of “food” (John 4:31-34)

(2) figurative use of “Temple” (John 2:19; Matt. 26:61)

(3) Hebrew idiom of compassion, “hate” (Gen. 29:31; Deut. 21:15; Luke 14:36; John 12:25; Rom. 9:13)

(4) “All” versus “many.’ Compare Isa. 53:6 (“all”) with 53:11 & 12 (“many”). The terms are synonymous as Rom. 5:18 and 19 show.

5. The use of a full linguistic phrase instead of a single word. Example: “The Lord Jesus Christ.”

6. The special use of autos

a. when with the article (attributive position) it was translated “same.”

b. when without the article (predicate position) it was translated as an intensive reflexive pronoun—“himself,” “herself,” or “itself.”

E. The non-Greek reading Bible student can identify emphasis in several ways:

1. The use of an analytical lexicon and interlinear Greek/English text.

2. The comparison of English translations, particularly from the differing theories of translations. Example: comparing a “word-for-word” translation (KJV, NKJV, ASV, NASB, RSV, NRSV) with a “dynamic equivalent” (Williams, NIV, NEB, REB, JB, NJB, TEV). A good help here would be The Bible in Twenty-Six Translations published by Baker.

3. The use of The Emphasized Bible by Joseph Bryant Rotherham (Kregel, 1994).

4. The use of a very literal translation

a. The American Standard Version of 1901

b. Young’s Literal Translation of the Bible by Robert Young (Guardian Press, 1976).

The study of grammar is tedious but necessary for proper interpretation. These brief definitions, comments and examples are meant to encourage and equip non-Greek reading persons to use the grammatical notes provided in this volume. Surely these definitions are oversimplified. They should not be used in a dogmatic, inflexible manner, but as stepping stones toward a greater understanding of New Testament syntax. Hopefully these definitions will also enable readers to understand the comments of other study aids such as technical commentaries on the New Testament.

We must be able to verify our interpretation based on items of information found in the texts of the Bible. Grammar is one of the most helpful of these items; other items would include historical setting, literary context, contemporary word usage, and parallel passages.

appendix two

Abbreviations Used in this Study

AB Anchor Bible Commentaries, ed. William Foxwell Albright and David Noel Freedman

ABD Anchor Bible Dictionary (6 vols.), ed. David Noel Freedman

AKOT Analytical Key to the Old Testament by John Joseph Owens

ANET Ancient Near Eastern Texts, James B. Pritchard

BDB A Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament by F. Brown, S. R. Driver and

C. A. Briggs

BHS Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia, GBS, 1997

DSS Dead Sea Scrolls

IDB The Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible (4 vols.), ed. George A. Buttrick

ISBE International Standard Bible Encyclopedia (5 vols.), ed. James Orr

JB Jerusalem Bible

JPSOA The Holy Scriptures According to the Masoretic Text: A New Translation (The

Jewish Publication Society of America)

KB The Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament by Ludwig Koehler and Walter Baumgartner

LAM The Holy Bible From Ancient Eastern Manuscripts (the Peshitta) by George M. Lamsa

LXX Septuagint (Greek-English) by Zondervan, 1970

MOF A New Translation of the Bible by James Moffatt

MT Masoretic Hebrew Text

NAB New American Bible Text

NASB New American Standard Bible

NEB New English Bible

NET NET Bible: New English Translation, Second Beta Edition

NIDOTTE New International Dictionary of Old Testament Theology and Exegesis (5 vols.), ed. Willem A. VanGemeren

NIV New International Version

NJB New Jerusalem Bible

NRSV New Revised Standard Bible

OTPG Old Testament Parsing Guide by Todd S. Beall, William A. Banks and Colin Smith

REB Revised English Bible

RSV Revised Standard Version

SEPT The Septuagint (Greek-English) by Zondervan, 1970

TEV Today’s English Version from United Bible Societies

YLT Young’s Literal Translation of the Holy Bible by Robert Young

ZPBE Zondervan Pictorial Bible Encyclopedia (5 vols.), ed. Merrill C. Tenney