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ECCLESIASTES 3

PARAGRAPH DIVISIONS OF MODERN TRANSLATIONS

READING CYCLE THREE (see "Bible Interpretation Seminar")

FOLLOWING THE ORIGINAL AUTHOR'S INTENT AT PARAGRAPH LEVEL

This is a study guide commentary, which means that you are responsible for your own interpretation of the Bible. Each of us must walk in the light we have. You, the Bible, and the Holy Spirit are priority in interpretation. You must not relinquish this to a commentator.

Read the chapter in one sitting. Identify the subjects (reading cycle #3). Compare your subject divisions with the five translations above. Paragraphing is not inspired, but it is the key to following the original author's intent, which is the heart of interpretation. Every paragraph has one and only one subject.

CONTEXTUAL INSIGHTS

1. Although this chapter is usually interpreted as dealing with the timeliness or appropriateness of human actions, in context, it deals with God's sovereignty (see NRSV, i.e., Eccl. 2:24-26; 3:14).
   
   
2. When interpreting the book of Ecclesiastes it is very important that we see it is satire based on two key phrases:
   1. "all is vanity" (i.e., transitoriness of human life and effort; see full note at Eccl. 1:2)
   2. "under the sun" (i.e., physical life, earthly life viewed apart from God; see Eccl. 1:3,9)
   
   
3. The central answer to a meaningless and frustrated life is found in
   1. fear God (cf. Eccl. 3:14; 5:7; 7:18; 8:12,13; 12:13)
   2. faith and obedience (cf. Eccl. 12:13-14)
   3. the simple daily pleasures of life as provided by God (cf. Eccl. 2:24; 3:12-13, 22; 5:18; 6:12; 8:15; 9:7)
   
   
4. Ecclesiastes is one of the books of the Bible that must be interpreted in its totality. Prooftexting this book or missing its tongue-in-cheek worldview will prove to be a hermeneutical disaster.

WORD AND PHRASE STUDY

NASB (UPDATED) TEXT: ECCLESIASTES 3:1-8
 ¹There is an appointed time for everything. And there is a time for every event under heaven–
 ²A time to give birth and a time to die;
   A time to plant and a time to uproot what is planted.
 ³A time to kill and a time to heal;
   A time to tear down and a time to build up.
 ⁴A time to weep and a time to laugh;
   A time to mourn and a time to dance.
 ⁵A time to throw stones and a time to gather stones;
   A time to embrace and a time to shun embracing.
 ⁶A time to search and a time to give up as lost;
   A time to keep and a time to throw away.
 ⁷A time to tear apart and a time to sew together;
   A time to be silent and a time to speak.
 ⁸A time to love and a time to hate;
   A time for war and a time for peace.

3:1 "There is an appointed time for everything" The "appointed time" (lit. "for everything a season") seems to refer to the common events of human life. The "appointed time" does not speak of the advantageous human time, but of the divinely appointed time (i.e., Eccl. 2:24-26 and full note at 3:14). The emphasis of this chapter is on divine appointment. It speaks of the mystery of human effort ("under heaven") as it is compared with the sovereignty of God. In Wisdom Literature "appointed time" is often imagery for "appropriate time."

The Hebrew word (BDB 343, KB 340) means "delight" or "pleasure," but here it has the added connotation of activity that brings joy (cf. Eccl. 3:17; 8:6; Prov. 31:13). Enjoy life each day! Smell the roses along the path! All humans have is the immediate. All future events are in God's hand.

▣ "under heaven" See full note of the key phrase, "under the sun," at 1:3,9.

SPECIAL TOPIC: HEAVEN

3:2-8 Almost all English translations see Eccl. 3:2-8 in a poetic structure. Within each line there is a contrast, but the relationship between lines is not completely clear. There is a series of 27 INFINITIVE CONSTRUCTS (three more in 2:26).

SPECIAL TOPIC: HEBREW POETRY

3:2 "A time to give birth, and a time to die" There is a series of events which refer to the cycle of human development from birth to death.

▣ "A time to plant, and a time to uproot what is planted" There is a grammatical connection between the efforts of the sinner (Eccl. 2:26, two Qal INFINITIVE CONSTRUCTS) and that of Eccl. 3:2-9 (a series of 27 INFINITIVE CONSTRUCTS).

This speaks of the annual harvest (i.e., M. Dahood, Phoenician Background of Qohelet).  Israel was an agricultural culture. "Uproot" here means to harvest the matured crop.

3:3 "A time to kill, and a time to heal" Since war is mentioned in Eccl. 3:8 the killing referred to here seems to have another focus. Some have assumed that it refers to

1. capital punishment within the nation of Israel (see SPECIAL TOPIC: HANG and SPECIAL TOPIC: STONE TO DEATH)
2. the defense of one's home, or person, in the event of an attack
3. The Jewish Publication Society of America (JPSOA) translates this phrase as "A time for slaying and a time for healing," but in the footnote it suggests a possible emendation based on 1 Kgs. 18:30, "A time for wrecking and a time for repairing."

3:4 "A time to weep, and a time to laugh; A time to mourn, and a time to dance" Some believe these two poetic lines refer to funerals (ie., a time to weep) and weddings (i.e., a time to laugh) or to other regular social events.

3:5 "A time to throw stones, and a time to gather stones" Many have assumed that

1. this is agricultural imagery of one removing stones from a field
2. however, this could be construction imagery of using stones for a rock fence or a home
3. It has been the consensus among Jewish commentators that this has sexual connotations (cf. TEV "making love"). This is stated specifically in the Midrash. The context of Eccl. 3:5b seems to reinforce this understanding. This would mean that there is time, Levitically speaking, when men could have sexual relations and a time when they could not because of a woman's menstrual cycle or the man's military commitments.

▣ "A time to embrace, and a time to shun embracing" This could refer to

1. sexual love within marriage (cf. Sol 2:6)
2. sexual love outside of marriage (cf. Prov. 5:20)
3. a family's caring love for each other
4. friends kissing one another on the cheek, which was common in the Near East.

3:6 "A time to search, and a time to give up as lost" The first term "search" (BDB 134, KB 152, Piel INFINITIVE CONSTRUCT) means to seek after something. However, there comes a time in life where it becomes obvious that that something or someone cannot be obtained! One must get on with life!

3:7 "A time to tear apart, and a time to sew together" This may refer to one of the mourning practices of the Jews. They would rip the front of their robe at the neckline about five inches (e.g., 1 Sam. 4:12; 2 Sam. 1:2; 13:31; 15:32; 2 Kgs. 18:3;7; Jer. 41:5); when the mourning was over they would sew it up again.

SPECIAL TOPIC: GRIEVING RITES

▣ "A time to be silent, and a time to speak" This may also refer to

1. the mourning rites
2. sharing information

3:8 "A time to love and a time to hate" This speaks to the range of human emotions from the positive to the negative (i.e., true antonyms). Unfortunately, fallen humans are involved in both. One brings lasting advantage but the other does not.

▣ "A time for war and a time for peace" Most Jewish commentators understand Eccl. 3:1-8 as referring to

1. national Israel (cf. "appointed time" in Ps. 75:2; 102:13)
2. however, it seems that Eccl. 3:9-11 defines these verses in light of a personal, rather than corporate, emphasis

SPECIAL TOPIC: WAR AND PEACE

NASB (UPDATED) TEXT: ECCLESIASTES 3:9-11
 ⁹What profit is there to the worker from that in which he toils? ¹⁰I have seen the task which God has given the sons of men with which to occupy themselves. ¹¹He has made everything appropriate in its time. He has also set eternity in their heart, yet so that man will not find out the work which God has done from the beginning even to the end.

3:9-10 The NOUN "profit" (BDB 452, KB 452) is a key term found only in Ecclesiastes (cf. Eccl. 1:3; 2:11,13; 5:8,15; 7:12; 10:10,11). A related SUBSTANTIVE (BDB 452) is also found in Eccl. 6:8,11; 7:11,16; 12:9,12). It can be translated "advantage," "profit," or "lasting benefit." See note at Eccl. 1:3. The key question is, "Is there any lasting gain or value in human life, human effort, human wisdom?"

At first glance this seems to contradict the "good" of Gen. 1:4,10,12,18,22,25 and the superlative statement of Gen. 1:31. However, Ecclesiastes is dealing with perceived life as it is now. Therefore, I would assume this evaluation is made in light of the terrible consequences of Genesis 3 (see SPECIAL TOPIC: THE FALL OF MANKIND).

It seems that humanity is driven to perform certain common tasks (cf. Eccl. 1:13; 2:23), tasks even provided by God (cf. Eccl. 1:13; 2:24; 3:11), but they are unable to understand the purpose or outcome of these tasks. The purpose of these tasks is to show them their dependence on God (cf. Gal. 3:24; Eccl. 3:14,18), which is the opposite of the common experience of the Fall (i.e., independence from God characterized by the recurrent phrase, "under the sun"; see full note at Eccl. 1:3).

The key term "appropriate" (BDB 421, KB 423) means "fair" or "beautiful." In context it describes God's sovereign choices that control human circumstances. This is more corporate than individual (i.e., Jewish commentators see Eccl. 3:1-8 as referring to national Israel).

This again shows the sovereignty of God over human events as well as over time.

The term translated "eternity" (BDB 761, KB 798; lit. "the 'olam") is uncertain. A related Semitic term using the same three consonants means "hidden" or "concealed" (BDB 761).

1. In later Hebrew it referred to the creation of the world (LXX).
2. Some scholars try to make this line balance with previous ones ("appropriate in its time"), meaning God controls human situations and destinies.
3. Some scholars try to take it with the following line about human's inability to understand God's work, which fits the meaning of the Hebrew trilateral root (cf. Eccl. 12:14).
4. Qoheleth uses a similar root (BDB 761) several times (i.e., 'olam, see SPECIAL TOPIC: FOREVER ('olam), cf. Eccl. 1:4,10; 2:16; 3:14; 9:6; 12:5) in the sense of time.

Poetry is always difficult to lock down. Its beauty and power are often destroyed by exegesis! Its terms are often rare and used in specialized senses. Its meaning is purposefully vague and thought-provoking. The larger context helps us get the general drift of Qoheleth's thought.

The Jerusalem Bible (a French Catholic dynamic equivalent translation) has a good comment on this verse:

"This phrase, however, is not to be taken in the Christian sense; it means simply: God has given the human heart (mind) awareness of 'duration,' he has endowed him with the power of reflecting on the sequence of events and thus of controlling the present. But, the author adds, this awareness is deceptive; it does not reveal the meaning of life" (p. 983 "b").

Humanity longs to understand life but cannot. Humans made in God's image long to fully understand God but cannot (a purposeful philosophical agnosticism, so characteristic of Qoheleth's writings).

▣ "the work which God has done" The NOUN (BDB 795) is from the same Semitic root as the VERB (BDB 793 I, KB 889, Qal PERFECT). This is often done as a creative writing style.

God's work can be understood in two ways:

1. from eternity
2. throughout an individual's life

NASB (UPDATED) TEXT: ECCLESIASTES 3:12-15
 ¹²I know that there is nothing better for them than to rejoice and to do good in one's lifetime; ¹³moreover, that every man who eats and drinks sees good in all his labor—it is the gift of God. ¹⁴I know that everything God does will remain forever; there is nothing to add to it and there is nothing to take from it, for God has so worked that men should fear Him. ¹⁵That which is has been already and that which will be has already been, for God seeks what has passed by.

3:12-13 This seems to be a summary strophe, like Eccl. 2:24-26. It suggests that although we cannot understand all of the mysteries of God, we can know

1. God's love by faith and obedience
2. enjoy the simple pleasures of life provided by God (cf. Eccl. 2:24; 3:12-13,22; 5:18; 8:15; 9:7-9)

Since we cannot understand or change the events in our individual lives (i.e., Eccl. 3:1-8) or in our world, we must focus on thanksgiving for those common, simple, daily, but really wonderful, things common to all human societies, but that really are a gift from God (cf. Eccl. 2:24; 5:19). These are spelled out in Eccl. 3:13:

1. food
2. drink
3. a sense of purpose in one's labor
4. from other verses in Ecclesiastes, one's family (cf. Eccl. 9:7-9)

All of these are gifts from God. It is possible that the gift is one's faith perspective which trusts in God although one cannot understand one's own existential circumstances. The Fall (cf. Genesis 3) has affected our ability to comprehend ultimate truth (cf. Eccl. 1:18; 8:16-9:12). It must be revealed, not discovered.

SPECIAL TOPIC: INSPIRATION

SPECIAL TOPIC: WAYS OF REVELATION

3:14 "I know that everything God does will remain forever" Here again is the emphasis on the eternality and sovereignty of God and the transitoriness of human life (e.g., Ps. 103: 14,15; Isa. 40:6-8; 1 Peter 1:24,25).

Ecclesiastes is as much a book about God as it is about humanity. The theology of a fallen world is only hinted at in the phrase "under the sun," but the reality of a mysterious painful, yet pleasurable, world is characterized in "vanity of vanities, all is vanity." Our mystery is God's clear, purposeful, knowledgeable and comprehensive plan. Knowledge is not as crucial as trust, faith, and obedience (i.e., Job 42).

Some of the texts which characterize the unknowable but present God are

1. there is a divine plan at work, Eccl. 1:14; 3:10,18; 7:29; 8:16-17
2. there is a sovereign Lord, Eccl. 1:15 & 7:13; 3:11,14; 9:1; 12:1
3. there is a daily faith which enables and ennobles, Eccl. 2:24-26; 3:12,13,22; 5:18-20 (negatively in Eccl. 6:1-6); 9:7-9
4. there is an appropriate awe and respect due to God, Eccl. 3:14; 5:7; 7:18; 8:12,13; 12:13
5. there is/will be a time of evaluation by God of every human being, Eccl. 3:17; (5:1,4, implied); 11:9; 12:14

SPECIAL TOPIC: YHWH'S ETERNAL REDEMPTIVE PLAN

▣ "for God has so worked that men should fear Him" This reflects the truth of Eccl. 3:10 that God has given us a task that we cannot perform so that we will continue to depend on Him (i.e., "fear Him," cf. Eccl. 5:7; 7:18; 8:12,13, which implies a faith worldview) and not on ourselves.

SPECIAL TOPIC: FEAR (OT)

3:15 "That which is has been already, and that which will be has already been" There are several possibilities of this verse:

1. a reflection on Eccl. 1:9 (i.e., nothing new in human activity)
2. it is used in a tongue-in-cheek (i.e., "under the sun," cf. Eccl. 3:16)
3. it could be related to God's revelation to Moses (i.e., do not add or take away from God's revelation, cf. Deut. 4:2; 12:32; Jer. 26:2)
   

This is a very difficult Hebrew phrase.

1. Some assume it means "the one who is persecuted" (cf. Peshitta, NJB, JPSOA).
2. Others go with the traditional translation of "what has been driven away" (the VERB, BDB 134, KB 152, Piel IMPERFECT, has both meanings).
3. It seems to refer to the general concept of the book of Ecclesiastes that although the experiences of all humans are in a repetitive cycle, there is a divine purpose in this cycle. One day God will judge individual human choices!
4. The UBS Handbook (p. 108) asserts that this VERB in later Hebrew meant "request" or "ask." If so, then God wants His special creation to pursue:
   1. action at the appropriate time (cf. Eccl. 3:1-8)
   2. daily pleasures (cf. Eccl. 2:24-26; 3:22)
   3. eternity (cf. Eccl. 3:11)
   4. His activities (cf. Eccl. 3:14)
   5. His Law (cf.3:15, Deut. 4:2; 12:32)
5. The NIDOTTE, vol. 1, p. 722, supports the KB, "passed/gone by" (see NASB, NRSV, LXX).

NASB (UPDATED) TEXT: ECCLESIASTES 3:16-22
 ¹⁶Furthermore, I have seen under the sun that in the place of justice there is wickedness and in the place of righteousness there is wickedness. ¹⁷I said to myself, "God will judge both the righteous man and the wicked man," for a time for every matter and for every deed is there. ¹⁸I said to myself concerning the sons of men, "God has surely tested them in order for them to see that they are but beasts." ¹⁹For the fate of the sons of men and the fate of beasts is the same. As one dies so dies the other; indeed, they all have the same breath and there is no advantage for man over beast, for all is vanity. ²⁰All go to the same place. All came from the dust and all return to the dust. ²¹Who knows that the breath of man ascends upward and the breath of the beast descends downward to the earth? ²²I have seen that nothing is better than that man should be happy in his activities, for that is his lot. For who will bring him to see what will occur after him?

3:16 "under the sun" Again, I think that the book of Ecclesiastes (using this phrase) views life from one of two perspectives:

1. What is the meaning of life if there is no God?
2. What is the meaning of life if there is a God?

See note at Eccl. 1:3,9.

▣ "in the place of justice there is wickedness, and in the place of righteousness there is wickedness" This seems to show that the two places where the character of God should have been manifested most clearly in human life are

1. the law courts ("the place of justice," BDB 1048)
2. the area of worship ("the place of righteousness," BDB 841, see note at Eccl. 1:15)

It is possible that these two words are used in parallel and refer to characteristics of God. However, because of the fallenness of humanity and the unfairness of life in a fallen world, righteousness and justice are not found! Power corrupts (cf. Eccl. 4:1; 5:8; 8:9)! And wickedness (BDB 957, KB 1295, cf. NOUN, Eccl. 3:16 [twice]; 7:25; 8:8; ADJECTIVE, Eccl. 3:17; 7:15; 8:10, 13, 14 [twice]; 9:2) results!

SPECIAL TOPIC: RIGHTEOUSNESS

SPECIAL TOPIC: CHARACTERISTICS OF ISRAEL'S GOD (OT)

3:17-18 "God will judge both the righteous man and the wicked man" There are two aspects given to the statements found in Eccl. 3:16 about wickedness in the place of justice and worship.

1. The first answer is in this verse and states that God will ultimately judge all humans one day (i.e., an appointed time, cf. Eccl. 11:9; 12:14).
   

   Verse 17 has often been interpreted as an affirmation of an afterlife. Although this is rare in Ecclesiastes, it is not completely unique. If it is true that God is a fair God, the righteous will prosper and the wicked will be judged (i.e., the two ways, cf. Leviticus 26; Deuteronomy 28; Psalm 1). If it does not happen in this life (sometimes it does, cf. Job 27:13-23; Psalm 73), then the only conclusion is that there must be an afterlife (e.g., Matt. 25:31-46; 2 Cor. 5:10; Rev. 20:11-15).
   

   SPECIAL TOPIC: RESURRECTION

   SPECIAL TOPIC: PHARISEES

2. This is the second answer to the apparent injustice of Eccl. 3:16 and that is that God is surely testing (lit. "purging" or "cleaning," BDB 140, KB 162, Qal INFINITIVE CONSTRUCT) everything. This is a general truth of the Bible (e.g., Gen. 22:1; Exod. 15:25; 16:4; 20:20; Deut. 8:2, 16; 13:3; Jdg. 2:22; 2 Chr. 32:31; Matt. 4:1; Heb. 12:5-13).

  SPECIAL TOPIC: GOD TESTS HIS PEOPLE

▣ "in order for them to see that they are but beasts" Again, the purpose is to show humans that without God they are only a highly developed animal (i.e., nephesh, Gen. 1:30). God is seeking to put fallen mankind in such a position where they will recognize the futility of life without the spiritual component (God, judgment, eternity).

The JPSOA translates this as "to dissociate them [from] divine beings." I do not see where they got this supposed translation. But, the subject is interesting and relates to the different connotations of elohim (i.e., vv. 17,18). Please look at the following Special Topics.

SPECIAL TOPIC: NAMES FOR DEITY, C.

SPECIAL TOPIC: godly ones, holy ones

SPECIAL TOPIC: HEAVENLY COUNCIL OF ANGELIC BEINGS

SPECIAL TOPIC: NEPHESH

3:19 "For the fate of the sons of men and the fate of beasts is the same" There is a carryover from Eccl. 3:18 to Eccl. 3:19 in the term "beast" (BDB 96, KB 111). If one pursues the concept that this physical realm is all that there is, the consequences are quite discouraging. The death of a human is no different from that of an animal (cf. Eccl. 2:14; 6:6;; 7:2; 9:2,3). However, if there is a spiritual realm and if mankind is made in the image of God (cf. Gen. 1:26-27), then there is an eternal significance for humanity (cf. Eccl. 12:7).

Verses 20-22 are an expansion of the question mentioned in Eccl. 3:19. The term "breath" (BDB 924, KB 1197-1201) is interesting because it goes back to Gen. 2:7. It is true that the breath of life, which made Adam a living soul, or nephesh, is used for both the animals and for Adam. However, although humans certainly do have animal characteristics (eat, breathe, reproduce) and are related uniquely to this planet, there is a uniquely spiritual element in mankind.

SPECIAL TOPIC: BREATH, WIND, SPIRIT

SPECIAL TOPIC: NEPHESH

▣  "all is vanity"  This is a major theological term in Ecclesiastes. See full note at Eccl. 1:3.

3:20 "All go to the same place. All came from the dust and all return to the dust" This truth is initially stated in Gen. 3:19 and developed in Ps. 103:14 and 104:29.

The term "dust" (BDB 779, KB 861) is also used in Gen. 2:7 (see notes online) in relation to the special creation of mankind (cf. Gen. 3:19; Job 4:19; 8:19; 10:9; 34:15; Ps. 103:14; 104:29; Eccl. 3:20; 12:7). Humans were made from dust and will return to dust. Qoheleth knew the Genesis account of creation and used its key terms:

1. nephesh
2. dust

SPECIAL TOPIC: NEPHESH

3:21 "Who knows that" Because of the use of this same phrase in Eccl. 2:19 and 6:12 this is obviously a question. It seems though that the same truth is found in Eccl. 12:7 as an affirmation.

The relationship between the questions in Eccl. 3:21 and 22 has been dealt with in a very creative way by the commentator H. C. Leupold in Exposition of Ecclesiastes, pp. 97-101. He asserts that the two questions are really an INTERROGATIVE and a regular ARTICLE, which makes an affirmation. This structure seems to be a better understanding of these two verses. When one consults English translations one finds a question in both Eccl. 3:21 and 22. However, if one compares 12:7 with the question of Eccl. 3:22, they seem to be contradictory. I think that Leupold's technical discussion on the use of the article versus the interrogative is helpful in making Eccl. 3:22 an affirmation instead of a question.

▣ "breath" This Hebrew term ruah (BDB 924) has a wide semantic range:

1. wind
2. breath
3. spirit
   1. God
   2. mankind

SPECIAL TOPIC: BREATH, WIND, SPIRIT

▣ "upward. . .downward" This is a reflection of the ancient worldview that God's abode was up and Sheol was underground. It is often called "the three storied universe" and is used to try and show that the Bible is an irrelevant ancient book. This is phenomenalogical language, language of the five human senses. Smoke of the sacrifices goes "up" to God! Dead bodies (in Jewish culture) are buried (i.e., in the earth). Before we criticize the ancient world for this kind of descriptive language, remember we moderns speak in the similar imagery.

1. the sun "rises"
2. dew "falls"
3. "mother nature"

SPECIAL TOPIC: THE HEAVENS AND LTHE THIRD HEAVEN

SPECIAL TOPIC: SHEOL

▣ "what will occur after him" This does not necessarily refer specifically to an afterlife in this context, but perhaps to future events in this life.

3:22 This is another summary statement, like Eccl. 2:24-26 and 3:12-13! This is a recurrent theme (cf. Eccl. 5:18; 8:15; 9:7-9). See note at Eccl. 2:24-26

This term (BDB 324, KB 322, II) is used often in Ecclesiastes but is translated in several ways (from NASB 1995):

1. "reward" ‒ Eccl. 2:10; 5:18,19; 9:6
2. "legacy" ‒ Eccl. 2:21
3. "lot" ‒ Eccl. 3:22
4. "share" ‒ Eccl. 9:6
5. "portion" ‒ Eccl. 11:1

It refers to that which happens to an individual during his earthly life. Sometimes good, sometimes evil, sometimes fair, sometimes unfair. There is a divine but unknowable plan. Therefore, enjoy what is available to you; enjoy the simple, daily pleasures of an earthly life as they come. Humans are ignorant of the past and future. All they have is the present.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

This is a study guide commentary, which means that you are responsible for your own interpretation of the Bible. Each of us must walk in the light we have. You, the Bible, and the Holy Spirit are priority in interpretation. You must not relinquish this to a commentator.

These discussion questions are provided to help you think through the major issues of this section of the book. They are meant to be thought-provoking, not definitive.

1. Is this chapter speaking of human actions or divine election?
2. Does Eccl. 3:2-8 describe the life of all men or only some?
3. How does Eccl. 3:9-11 relate to Eccl. 3:2-8?
4. What has God put into man's heart and why is this so frustrating?
5. What are the simple pleasures of life that God gives and why is this such an important truth in the book of Ecclesiastes?
6. How does the phrase "under the sun" affect one's interpretation of this book?
7. Does God really test everyone?
8. Is the fate of men and animals different or are we simply dealing with a cynic?

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